Capitalist Disruptions and the Democratic Retreat: A US–EU–China Comparison
Ibrahim Ozturk
References
Almond, G. A., & Verba, S. (1963). The civic culture: Political attitudes and democracy in five nations. Princeton University Press.
Americans for Tax Fairness. (2023). Billionaires increased their wealth by $1.7 trillion during the pandemic. https://americansfortaxfairness.org
Apter, D. E. (1965). The politics of modernization. University of Chicago Press.
Autor, D. H., Dorn, D., Hanson, G. H., & Majlesi, K. (2020). “Importing political polarization? The electoral consequences of rising trade exposure.” American Economic Review, 110(10), 3139–3183. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20170011
BEA (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis). (2023). Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments. https://www.bea.gov
Bermeo, N. (2016). “On democratic backsliding.” Journal of Democracy, 27(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2016.0012
Bessent, S. (2025, April 23). Remarks on IMF and World Bank reform. U.S. Department of the Treasury.
Block, F. (2003). “Karl Polanyi and the Writing of The Great Transformation.” Theory and Society, 32(3), 275–306. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024420102333
Blyth, M. (2013). Austerity: The history of a dangerous idea. Oxford University Press.
Bradshaw, S., & Howard, P. N. (2019). The global disinformation order: 2019 global inventory of organised social media manipulation. Computational Propaganda Research Project, Oxford Internet Institute.
Braudel, F. (1982). The wheels of commerce (Vol. 2). Harper & Row.
Braudel, F. (1984). Civilization and capitalism, 15th–18th century: Volume 2—The wheels of commerce (S. Reynolds, Trans.). Harper & Row.
Brown, W. (2019). In the ruins of neoliberalism: The rise of antidemocratic politics in the West. Columbia University Press.
Callahan, W. A. (2016). China dreams: 20 visions of the future. Oxford University Press.
China Law Translate. (2022). Internet information service algorithmic recommendation management provisions. https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/algo-recommendation/
Colantone, I., & Stanig, P. (2018a). “The trade origins of economic nationalism: Import competition and voting behavior in Western Europe.” American Journal of Political Science, 62(4), 936–953. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12358
Colantone, I., & Stanig, P. (2018b). “Global competition and Brexit.” American Political Science Review, 112(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055417000685
Companies Market Cap. (2025, August). Largest companies by market capitalization. Retrieved August 12, 2025, from https://companiesmarketcap.com
Creemers, R. (2018). “China’s social credit system: An evolving practice of control.” SSRN Working Paper. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3175792
Creemers, R. (2022). “China’s social credit system: Surveillance and reputation in the digital age.” China Information, 36(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X211059961
CSIS (Center for Strategic and International Studies). (2022). China’s Digital Silk Road and the global south. https://www.csis.org
Dai, X. (2020). “Enacting the social credit system: Governance through digital trust in China.” Media, Culture & Society, 42(3), 408–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443719853510
Deneen, P. J. (2024). Regime change: Toward a postliberal future. Sentinel.
Dickson, B. J. (2021). The dictator’s dilemma: The Chinese Communist Party’s strategy for survival. Oxford University Press.
Dollar, D. (2004). “Globalization, poverty, and inequality since 1980.” The World Bank Research Observer, 20(2), 145–175. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lki004
Dollar, D., & Kraay, A. (2004). “Trade, growth, and poverty.” The Economic Journal, 114(493), F22–F49. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0013-0133.2003.00158.x
Dunn, S. P., & Pressman, S. (2005). “The economic contributions of John Kenneth Galbraith. “Review of Political Economy, 17(2), 161–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/09538250500067597
DW News. (2025, May 21). “TikTok lays off Berlin moderation team amid AI expansion.” Deutsche Welle.
Economist Intelligence Unit. (2022). China’s common prosperity campaign: Rhetoric vs. reality. https://www.eiu.com
EFF (Electronic Frontier Foundation). (2023). Surveillance technologies and civil liberties in the U.S. https://www.eff.org
ET Bureau. (2025, February 11). “TCS trims 12,000 jobs as AI takes over coding and testing.” The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com
Eurostat. (2023). Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
Ferguson, T., Jorgensen, P., & Chen, J. (2021). The donor class: Campaign finance, lobbying, and American inequality. Institute for New Economic Thinking Working Paper Series.
Floridi, L. (2020). “The fight for digital sovereignty: What it is, and why it matters, especially for the EU.” Philosophy & Technology, 33(3), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-020-00405-w
Freedom House. (2021). Freedom in the World 2021: Democracy under siege. https://freedomhouse.org
Freedom House. (2023). Freedom on the Net 2023: The repression goes global. https://freedomhouse.org
Friedman, T. L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Fukuyama, F. (1992). The end of history and the last man. Free Press.
George, A. L., & Bennett, A. (2005). Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. MIT Press.
Gerbaudo, P. (2022). The great recoil: Politics after populism and pandemic. Verso.
Greider, W. (1992). Who will tell the people: The betrayal of American democracy. Simon & Schuster.
Greider, W. (2003). The soul of capitalism: Opening paths to a moral economy. Simon & Schuster.
Guriev, S., & Treisman, D. (2022). Spin dictators: The changing face of tyranny in the 21st century. Princeton University Press.
Haupt, A., & Brynjolfsson, E. (2025, May 1). “AI should not be an imitation game: Centaur evaluations.” In: Proceedings of the Forty-second International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML 2025). Stanford Digital Economy Lab. https://digitaleconomy.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/CentaurEvaluations.pdf
Huntington, S. P. (1991). The third wave: Democratization in the late 20th century. University of Oklahoma Press.
Ikenberry, G. J. (2018). “The end of liberal international order?” International Affairs, 94(1), 7–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix241
International Monetary Fund. (2025). World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO
Khan, L. M. (2017). “Amazon’s antitrust paradox.” Yale Law Journal, 126(3), 710–805. https://www.yalelawjournal.org/note/amazons-antitrust-paradox
Krastev, I., & Holmes, S. (2019). The light that failed: A reckoning. Allen Lane.
Kreps, S., & Kwet, M. (2023). “Elon Musk’s free speech absolutism is authoritarian in disguise.” Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com
Kroeber, A. R. (2022). China’s economy: What everyone needs to know (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Laskai, L. (2023). “The digital authoritarianism export: The global expansion of China’s surveillance state.” Council on Foreign Relations.
Levitsky, S., & Ziblatt, D. (2018). How democracies die. Crown Publishing.
Lipset, S. M. (1959). “Some social requisites of democracy: Economic development and political legitimacy.” American Political Science Review, 53(1), 69–105. https://doi.org/10.2307/1951731
Lunden, I. (2025, March 4). IBM to cut 8,000 jobs as AI transforms HR operations. TechCrunch. Retrieved from https://techcrunch.com
Matthijs, M., & McNamara, K. R. (2015). “The Euro crisis’ theory effect: Northern saints, southern sinners, and the demise of the eurobond.” Journal of European Integration, 37(2), 229–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2015.1009008
McKinsey Global Institute. (2021). The future of work after COVID-19. https://www.mckinsey.com
Meagher, K., & Huang, Y. (2021). “State capitalism 2.0: The logic of authoritarian capitalism in China.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 51(4), 588–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2021.1883996
Mounk, Y. (2018). The people vs. democracy: Why our freedom is in danger and how to save it. Harvard University Press.
Mudde, C., & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Müller, J. W. (2016). What is populism? University of Pennsylvania Press.
OECD. (2023). Income inequality (indicator). https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm
Oxfam. (2022). Inequality kills: The unparalleled action needed to combat unprecedented inequality. https://www.oxfam.org
Öztürk, İ. (2025). “China’s sharp power politics and authoritarian diffusion in the digital age.” Journal of Populism Studies, 3(1), 22–45.
Öztürk, İ. (2020). "On the institutional quality of the Belt and Road Initiative as a hybrid international public good." ASIEN: The German Journal on Contemporary Asia, 154/155(January/April), 129–149.
Pei, M. (2016). China’s crony capitalism: The dynamics of regime decay. Harvard University Press.
Piketty, T. (2020). Capital and ideology. Harvard University Press.
Polanyi, K. (1944). The great transformation: The political and economic origins of our time. Beacon Press.
Popper, K. (1945). The open society and its enemies. Routledge.
Rodrik, D. (2011). The globalization paradox: Democracy and the future of the world economy. W. W. Norton & Company.
Rodrik, D. (2018). “Populism and the economics of globalization.” Journal of International Business Policy, 1(1–2), 12–33. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-018-0001-4
Rolland, N. (2020). China’s vision for a new world order. National Bureau of Asian Research Special Report.
Runciman, D. (2018). How democracy ends. Profile Books.
Sedelmeier, U. (2017). “Political safeguards against democratic backsliding in the EU: The limits of material sanctions and the scope of social pressure.” Journal of European Public Policy, 24(3), 337–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2016.1229358
Stiglitz, J. E. (2002). Globalization and its discontents. W. W. Norton & Company.
Stiglitz, J. E. (2006). Making globalization work. W. W. Norton & Company.
Synergy Research Group. (2023). Cloud market share report. Synergy Research Group. Retrieved from https://www.srgresearch.com
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2025). Mass layoff statistics. U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov
Varoufakis, Y. (2023). Technofeudalism: What killed capitalism. Bodley Head.
Véliz, C. (2021). Privacy is power: Why and how you should take back control of your data. Bantam Press.
Vincent, J. (2025, April 19). Indeed and Glassdoor lay off 1,300 as AI reshapes hiring. The Verge. Retrieved from https://www.theverge.com
World Inequality Lab. (2022). World inequality report 2022. https://wir2022.wid.world
Zuboff, S. (2019). “The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power.” PublicAffairs.
Capitalist Disruptions and the Democratic Retreat: A US–EU–China Comparison
Ibrahim Ozturk
References
Almond, G. A., & Verba, S. (1963). The civic culture: Political attitudes and democracy in five nations. Princeton University Press.
Americans for Tax Fairness. (2023). Billionaires increased their wealth by $1.7 trillion during the pandemic. https://americansfortaxfairness.org
Apter, D. E. (1965). The politics of modernization. University of Chicago Press.
Autor, D. H., Dorn, D., Hanson, G. H., & Majlesi, K. (2020). “Importing political polarization? The electoral consequences of rising trade exposure.” American Economic Review, 110(10), 3139–3183. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20170011
BEA (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis). (2023). Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments. https://www.bea.gov
Bermeo, N. (2016). “On democratic backsliding.” Journal of Democracy, 27(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2016.0012
Bessent, S. (2025, April 23). Remarks on IMF and World Bank reform. U.S. Department of the Treasury.
Block, F. (2003). “Karl Polanyi and the Writing of The Great Transformation.” Theory and Society, 32(3), 275–306. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024420102333
Blyth, M. (2013). Austerity: The history of a dangerous idea. Oxford University Press.
Bradshaw, S., & Howard, P. N. (2019). The global disinformation order: 2019 global inventory of organised social media manipulation. Computational Propaganda Research Project, Oxford Internet Institute.
Braudel, F. (1982). The wheels of commerce (Vol. 2). Harper & Row.
Braudel, F. (1984). Civilization and capitalism, 15th–18th century: Volume 2—The wheels of commerce (S. Reynolds, Trans.). Harper & Row.
Brown, W. (2019). In the ruins of neoliberalism: The rise of antidemocratic politics in the West. Columbia University Press.
Callahan, W. A. (2016). China dreams: 20 visions of the future. Oxford University Press.
China Law Translate. (2022). Internet information service algorithmic recommendation management provisions. https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/algo-recommendation/
Colantone, I., & Stanig, P. (2018a). “The trade origins of economic nationalism: Import competition and voting behavior in Western Europe.” American Journal of Political Science, 62(4), 936–953. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12358
Colantone, I., & Stanig, P. (2018b). “Global competition and Brexit.” American Political Science Review, 112(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055417000685
Companies Market Cap. (2025, August). Largest companies by market capitalization. Retrieved August 12, 2025, from https://companiesmarketcap.com
Creemers, R. (2018). “China’s social credit system: An evolving practice of control.” SSRN Working Paper. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3175792
Creemers, R. (2022). “China’s social credit system: Surveillance and reputation in the digital age.” China Information, 36(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X211059961
CSIS (Center for Strategic and International Studies). (2022). China’s Digital Silk Road and the global south. https://www.csis.org
Dai, X. (2020). “Enacting the social credit system: Governance through digital trust in China.” Media, Culture & Society, 42(3), 408–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443719853510
Deneen, P. J. (2024). Regime change: Toward a postliberal future. Sentinel.
Dickson, B. J. (2021). The dictator’s dilemma: The Chinese Communist Party’s strategy for survival. Oxford University Press.
Dollar, D. (2004). “Globalization, poverty, and inequality since 1980.” The World Bank Research Observer, 20(2), 145–175. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lki004
Dollar, D., & Kraay, A. (2004). “Trade, growth, and poverty.” The Economic Journal, 114(493), F22–F49. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0013-0133.2003.00158.x
Dunn, S. P., & Pressman, S. (2005). “The economic contributions of John Kenneth Galbraith. “Review of Political Economy, 17(2), 161–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/09538250500067597
DW News. (2025, May 21). “TikTok lays off Berlin moderation team amid AI expansion.” Deutsche Welle.
Economist Intelligence Unit. (2022). China’s common prosperity campaign: Rhetoric vs. reality. https://www.eiu.com
EFF (Electronic Frontier Foundation). (2023). Surveillance technologies and civil liberties in the U.S. https://www.eff.org
ET Bureau. (2025, February 11). “TCS trims 12,000 jobs as AI takes over coding and testing.” The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com
Eurostat. (2023). Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
Ferguson, T., Jorgensen, P., & Chen, J. (2021). The donor class: Campaign finance, lobbying, and American inequality. Institute for New Economic Thinking Working Paper Series.
Floridi, L. (2020). “The fight for digital sovereignty: What it is, and why it matters, especially for the EU.” Philosophy & Technology, 33(3), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-020-00405-w
Freedom House. (2021). Freedom in the World 2021: Democracy under siege. https://freedomhouse.org
Freedom House. (2023). Freedom on the Net 2023: The repression goes global. https://freedomhouse.org
Friedman, T. L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Fukuyama, F. (1992). The end of history and the last man. Free Press.
George, A. L., & Bennett, A. (2005). Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. MIT Press.
Gerbaudo, P. (2022). The great recoil: Politics after populism and pandemic. Verso.
Greider, W. (1992). Who will tell the people: The betrayal of American democracy. Simon & Schuster.
Greider, W. (2003). The soul of capitalism: Opening paths to a moral economy. Simon & Schuster.
Guriev, S., & Treisman, D. (2022). Spin dictators: The changing face of tyranny in the 21st century. Princeton University Press.
Haupt, A., & Brynjolfsson, E. (2025, May 1). “AI should not be an imitation game: Centaur evaluations.” In: Proceedings of the Forty-second International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML 2025). Stanford Digital Economy Lab. https://digitaleconomy.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/CentaurEvaluations.pdf
Huntington, S. P. (1991). The third wave: Democratization in the late 20th century. University of Oklahoma Press.
Ikenberry, G. J. (2018). “The end of liberal international order?” International Affairs, 94(1), 7–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix241
International Monetary Fund. (2025). World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO
Khan, L. M. (2017). “Amazon’s antitrust paradox.” Yale Law Journal, 126(3), 710–805. https://www.yalelawjournal.org/note/amazons-antitrust-paradox
Krastev, I., & Holmes, S. (2019). The light that failed: A reckoning. Allen Lane.
Kreps, S., & Kwet, M. (2023). “Elon Musk’s free speech absolutism is authoritarian in disguise.” Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com
Kroeber, A. R. (2022). China’s economy: What everyone needs to know (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Laskai, L. (2023). “The digital authoritarianism export: The global expansion of China’s surveillance state.” Council on Foreign Relations.
Levitsky, S., & Ziblatt, D. (2018). How democracies die. Crown Publishing.
Lipset, S. M. (1959). “Some social requisites of democracy: Economic development and political legitimacy.” American Political Science Review, 53(1), 69–105. https://doi.org/10.2307/1951731
Lunden, I. (2025, March 4). IBM to cut 8,000 jobs as AI transforms HR operations. TechCrunch. Retrieved from https://techcrunch.com
Matthijs, M., & McNamara, K. R. (2015). “The Euro crisis’ theory effect: Northern saints, southern sinners, and the demise of the eurobond.” Journal of European Integration, 37(2), 229–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2015.1009008
McKinsey Global Institute. (2021). The future of work after COVID-19. https://www.mckinsey.com
Meagher, K., & Huang, Y. (2021). “State capitalism 2.0: The logic of authoritarian capitalism in China.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 51(4), 588–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2021.1883996
Mounk, Y. (2018). The people vs. democracy: Why our freedom is in danger and how to save it. Harvard University Press.
Mudde, C., & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Müller, J. W. (2016). What is populism? University of Pennsylvania Press.
OECD. (2023). Income inequality (indicator). https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm
Oxfam. (2022). Inequality kills: The unparalleled action needed to combat unprecedented inequality. https://www.oxfam.org
Öztürk, İ. (2025). “China’s sharp power politics and authoritarian diffusion in the digital age.” Journal of Populism Studies, 3(1), 22–45.
Öztürk, İ. (2020). "On the institutional quality of the Belt and Road Initiative as a hybrid international public good." ASIEN: The German Journal on Contemporary Asia, 154/155(January/April), 129–149.
Pei, M. (2016). China’s crony capitalism: The dynamics of regime decay. Harvard University Press.
Piketty, T. (2020). Capital and ideology. Harvard University Press.
Polanyi, K. (1944). The great transformation: The political and economic origins of our time. Beacon Press.
Popper, K. (1945). The open society and its enemies. Routledge.
Rodrik, D. (2011). The globalization paradox: Democracy and the future of the world economy. W. W. Norton & Company.
Rodrik, D. (2018). “Populism and the economics of globalization.” Journal of International Business Policy, 1(1–2), 12–33. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-018-0001-4
Rolland, N. (2020). China’s vision for a new world order. National Bureau of Asian Research Special Report.
Runciman, D. (2018). How democracy ends. Profile Books.
Sedelmeier, U. (2017). “Political safeguards against democratic backsliding in the EU: The limits of material sanctions and the scope of social pressure.” Journal of European Public Policy, 24(3), 337–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2016.1229358
Stiglitz, J. E. (2002). Globalization and its discontents. W. W. Norton & Company.
Stiglitz, J. E. (2006). Making globalization work. W. W. Norton & Company.
Synergy Research Group. (2023). Cloud market share report. Synergy Research Group. Retrieved from https://www.srgresearch.com
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2025). Mass layoff statistics. U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov
Varoufakis, Y. (2023). Technofeudalism: What killed capitalism. Bodley Head.
Véliz, C. (2021). Privacy is power: Why and how you should take back control of your data. Bantam Press.
Vincent, J. (2025, April 19). Indeed and Glassdoor lay off 1,300 as AI reshapes hiring. The Verge. Retrieved from https://www.theverge.com
World Inequality Lab. (2022). World inequality report 2022. https://wir2022.wid.world
Zuboff, S. (2019). “The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power.” PublicAffairs.
Capitalist Disruptions and the Democratic Retreat: A US–EU–China Comparison
Ibrahim Ozturk
References
Almond, G. A., & Verba, S. (1963). The civic culture: Political attitudes and democracy in five nations. Princeton University Press.
Americans for Tax Fairness. (2023). Billionaires increased their wealth by $1.7 trillion during the pandemic. https://americansfortaxfairness.org
Apter, D. E. (1965). The politics of modernization. University of Chicago Press.
Autor, D. H., Dorn, D., Hanson, G. H., & Majlesi, K. (2020). “Importing political polarization? The electoral consequences of rising trade exposure.” American Economic Review, 110(10), 3139–3183. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20170011
BEA (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis). (2023). Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments. https://www.bea.gov
Bermeo, N. (2016). “On democratic backsliding.” Journal of Democracy, 27(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2016.0012
Bessent, S. (2025, April 23). Remarks on IMF and World Bank reform. U.S. Department of the Treasury.
Block, F. (2003). “Karl Polanyi and the Writing of The Great Transformation.” Theory and Society, 32(3), 275–306. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024420102333
Blyth, M. (2013). Austerity: The history of a dangerous idea. Oxford University Press.
Bradshaw, S., & Howard, P. N. (2019). The global disinformation order: 2019 global inventory of organised social media manipulation. Computational Propaganda Research Project, Oxford Internet Institute.
Braudel, F. (1982). The wheels of commerce (Vol. 2). Harper & Row.
Braudel, F. (1984). Civilization and capitalism, 15th–18th century: Volume 2—The wheels of commerce (S. Reynolds, Trans.). Harper & Row.
Brown, W. (2019). In the ruins of neoliberalism: The rise of antidemocratic politics in the West. Columbia University Press.
Callahan, W. A. (2016). China dreams: 20 visions of the future. Oxford University Press.
China Law Translate. (2022). Internet information service algorithmic recommendation management provisions. https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/algo-recommendation/
Colantone, I., & Stanig, P. (2018a). “The trade origins of economic nationalism: Import competition and voting behavior in Western Europe.” American Journal of Political Science, 62(4), 936–953. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12358
Colantone, I., & Stanig, P. (2018b). “Global competition and Brexit.” American Political Science Review, 112(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055417000685
Companies Market Cap. (2025, August). Largest companies by market capitalization. Retrieved August 12, 2025, from https://companiesmarketcap.com
Creemers, R. (2018). “China’s social credit system: An evolving practice of control.” SSRN Working Paper. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3175792
Creemers, R. (2022). “China’s social credit system: Surveillance and reputation in the digital age.” China Information, 36(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X211059961
CSIS (Center for Strategic and International Studies). (2022). China’s Digital Silk Road and the global south. https://www.csis.org
Dai, X. (2020). “Enacting the social credit system: Governance through digital trust in China.” Media, Culture & Society, 42(3), 408–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443719853510
Deneen, P. J. (2024). Regime change: Toward a postliberal future. Sentinel.
Dickson, B. J. (2021). The dictator’s dilemma: The Chinese Communist Party’s strategy for survival. Oxford University Press.
Dollar, D. (2004). “Globalization, poverty, and inequality since 1980.” The World Bank Research Observer, 20(2), 145–175. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lki004
Dollar, D., & Kraay, A. (2004). “Trade, growth, and poverty.” The Economic Journal, 114(493), F22–F49. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0013-0133.2003.00158.x
Dunn, S. P., & Pressman, S. (2005). “The economic contributions of John Kenneth Galbraith. “Review of Political Economy, 17(2), 161–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/09538250500067597
DW News. (2025, May 21). “TikTok lays off Berlin moderation team amid AI expansion.” Deutsche Welle.
Economist Intelligence Unit. (2022). China’s common prosperity campaign: Rhetoric vs. reality. https://www.eiu.com
EFF (Electronic Frontier Foundation). (2023). Surveillance technologies and civil liberties in the U.S. https://www.eff.org
ET Bureau. (2025, February 11). “TCS trims 12,000 jobs as AI takes over coding and testing.” The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com
Eurostat. (2023). Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
Ferguson, T., Jorgensen, P., & Chen, J. (2021). The donor class: Campaign finance, lobbying, and American inequality. Institute for New Economic Thinking Working Paper Series.
Floridi, L. (2020). “The fight for digital sovereignty: What it is, and why it matters, especially for the EU.” Philosophy & Technology, 33(3), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-020-00405-w
Freedom House. (2021). Freedom in the World 2021: Democracy under siege. https://freedomhouse.org
Freedom House. (2023). Freedom on the Net 2023: The repression goes global. https://freedomhouse.org
Friedman, T. L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Fukuyama, F. (1992). The end of history and the last man. Free Press.
George, A. L., & Bennett, A. (2005). Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. MIT Press.
Gerbaudo, P. (2022). The great recoil: Politics after populism and pandemic. Verso.
Greider, W. (1992). Who will tell the people: The betrayal of American democracy. Simon & Schuster.
Greider, W. (2003). The soul of capitalism: Opening paths to a moral economy. Simon & Schuster.
Guriev, S., & Treisman, D. (2022). Spin dictators: The changing face of tyranny in the 21st century. Princeton University Press.
Haupt, A., & Brynjolfsson, E. (2025, May 1). “AI should not be an imitation game: Centaur evaluations.” In: Proceedings of the Forty-second International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML 2025). Stanford Digital Economy Lab. https://digitaleconomy.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/CentaurEvaluations.pdf
Huntington, S. P. (1991). The third wave: Democratization in the late 20th century. University of Oklahoma Press.
Ikenberry, G. J. (2018). “The end of liberal international order?” International Affairs, 94(1), 7–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix241
International Monetary Fund. (2025). World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO
Khan, L. M. (2017). “Amazon’s antitrust paradox.” Yale Law Journal, 126(3), 710–805. https://www.yalelawjournal.org/note/amazons-antitrust-paradox
Krastev, I., & Holmes, S. (2019). The light that failed: A reckoning. Allen Lane.
Kreps, S., & Kwet, M. (2023). “Elon Musk’s free speech absolutism is authoritarian in disguise.” Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com
Kroeber, A. R. (2022). China’s economy: What everyone needs to know (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Laskai, L. (2023). “The digital authoritarianism export: The global expansion of China’s surveillance state.” Council on Foreign Relations.
Levitsky, S., & Ziblatt, D. (2018). How democracies die. Crown Publishing.
Lipset, S. M. (1959). “Some social requisites of democracy: Economic development and political legitimacy.” American Political Science Review, 53(1), 69–105. https://doi.org/10.2307/1951731
Lunden, I. (2025, March 4). IBM to cut 8,000 jobs as AI transforms HR operations. TechCrunch. Retrieved from https://techcrunch.com
Matthijs, M., & McNamara, K. R. (2015). “The Euro crisis’ theory effect: Northern saints, southern sinners, and the demise of the eurobond.” Journal of European Integration, 37(2), 229–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2015.1009008
McKinsey Global Institute. (2021). The future of work after COVID-19. https://www.mckinsey.com
Meagher, K., & Huang, Y. (2021). “State capitalism 2.0: The logic of authoritarian capitalism in China.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 51(4), 588–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2021.1883996
Mounk, Y. (2018). The people vs. democracy: Why our freedom is in danger and how to save it. Harvard University Press.
Mudde, C., & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Müller, J. W. (2016). What is populism? University of Pennsylvania Press.
OECD. (2023). Income inequality (indicator). https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm
Oxfam. (2022). Inequality kills: The unparalleled action needed to combat unprecedented inequality. https://www.oxfam.org
Öztürk, İ. (2025). “China’s sharp power politics and authoritarian diffusion in the digital age.” Journal of Populism Studies, 3(1), 22–45.
Öztürk, İ. (2020). "On the institutional quality of the Belt and Road Initiative as a hybrid international public good." ASIEN: The German Journal on Contemporary Asia, 154/155(January/April), 129–149.
Pei, M. (2016). China’s crony capitalism: The dynamics of regime decay. Harvard University Press.
Piketty, T. (2020). Capital and ideology. Harvard University Press.
Polanyi, K. (1944). The great transformation: The political and economic origins of our time. Beacon Press.
Popper, K. (1945). The open society and its enemies. Routledge.
Rodrik, D. (2011). The globalization paradox: Democracy and the future of the world economy. W. W. Norton & Company.
Rodrik, D. (2018). “Populism and the economics of globalization.” Journal of International Business Policy, 1(1–2), 12–33. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-018-0001-4
Rolland, N. (2020). China’s vision for a new world order. National Bureau of Asian Research Special Report.
Runciman, D. (2018). How democracy ends. Profile Books.
Sedelmeier, U. (2017). “Political safeguards against democratic backsliding in the EU: The limits of material sanctions and the scope of social pressure.” Journal of European Public Policy, 24(3), 337–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2016.1229358
Stiglitz, J. E. (2002). Globalization and its discontents. W. W. Norton & Company.
Stiglitz, J. E. (2006). Making globalization work. W. W. Norton & Company.
Synergy Research Group. (2023). Cloud market share report. Synergy Research Group. Retrieved from https://www.srgresearch.com
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2025). Mass layoff statistics. U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov
Varoufakis, Y. (2023). Technofeudalism: What killed capitalism. Bodley Head.
Véliz, C. (2021). Privacy is power: Why and how you should take back control of your data. Bantam Press.
Vincent, J. (2025, April 19). Indeed and Glassdoor lay off 1,300 as AI reshapes hiring. The Verge. Retrieved from https://www.theverge.com
World Inequality Lab. (2022). World inequality report 2022. https://wir2022.wid.world
Zuboff, S. (2019). “The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power.” PublicAffairs.