Civilizational Populism and Migration Diplomacy: Tunisia, the European Union, and Italy
Helen L. Murphey
Civilizational populists prioritize territorial sovereignty in their approach to migration. In instances of North-South inequality, however, transit countries may be incentivized to accede to ideologically unpalatable agreements. To understand how these compromises are legitimized, this paper analyses Tunisia’s negotiations with the European Union following the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding in July 2023 that laid the foundations for cooperation over irregular migration. The deal faced challenges on both the Tunisian and EU sides. Tunisian president Kais Saied, a civilizational populist, chafed at perceived EU paternalism and threats to Tunisia’s sovereignty. The deal was also controversial within the EU due to the Saied regime’s human rights violations, which led to further scrutiny of the Tunisian government’s migration management practices. This article finds that Italy’s mediation, spearheaded by Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni, was successful in addressing these tensions. By positioning Italy as separate from EU paternalism through a shared framework informed by civilizational populism, Saied could justify engaging in positive-sum diplomacy with the Meloni government and symbolically dispel perceptions of diplomatic asymmetry.
Keywords: migration, European Union, Tunisia, populist foreign policy, Italy
References
Abderrahim, Tasnim. (2024). “Maghreb migrations: How North Africa and Europe can work together on sub-Saharan migration.” European Council on Foreign Relations, September 5. https://ecfr.eu/publication/maghreb-migrations-how-north-africa-and-europe-can-work-together-on-sub-saharan-migration/.
Adamson, Fiona B. and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2019). “Migration Diplomacy in World Politics.” International Studies Perspectives, 20, 113-128.
Al Jazeera. (2023). “Wuṣifat bil-ʻunṣuriyyah..taṣrīḥāt Saʻīd bi-shaʼn al-muhājirīn min ʼAfrīqiyā janūb aṣ-ṣaḥrāʼ tuthīr al-jadal.” Al Jazeera, February 22. https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2023/2/22/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-77.
Al-Shurūq. (2023a). “Jūrjiyyāh Mīlūnī: ‘alaynā ʼiẓhār al-iḥtirām ma‘ tūnis wa-miṣr.” Al-Shurūq, October 26. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7-%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7-%D8%A5%D8%B8%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1.
Al-Shurūq. (2023b). “Ladá istiqbālihi ‘Ammār.. Sa‘īd yarudd ‘alá ‘arḍ al-ittiḥād al-’ūrubbiyy ḥawla milaff al-hijrah.” Al-Shurūq, October 2, 2023. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84-%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9.
Al-Shurūq. (2024). “Sa‘īd ya‘dū ’ilá i‘timād muqāribah jamā‘iyyah li-mas’alat al-hijrah wa-muḥārabat shabakāt al-mutājarah bil-bashar.” Al-Shurūq, April 17, 2024. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B9%D9%88-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A3%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1.
Albanese, Anthony. (2025). “Right-Wing Populism, Religion, and Civilizational Identity.” Religions, 16 (10), 1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101270.
Ambrosini, Maurizio. (2025). “The populist far right paradox: the identification of the enemy and its exceptions in the immigration policies of the Meloni government in Italy.” Comparative Migration Studies, 13:17, 1-19.
Amnesty International. (2023). “Tunisia: President’s racist speech incites a wave of violence against Black Africans.” Amnesty International, March 10. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/03/tunisia-presidents-racist-speech-incites-a-wave-of-violence-against-black-africans/.
Amnesty International. (2024). “Tunisia: Repressive crackdown on civil society organizations following months of escalating violence against migrants and refugees.” Amnesty International, May 16. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/05/tunisia-repressive-crackdown-on-civil-society-organizations-following-months-of-escalating-violence-against-migrants-and-refugees/.
Bajec, Alessandra. (2023). “Tunisia IMF talks in limbo as economic pressure builds.” The New Arab, April 17. https://www.newarab.com/analysis/tunisia-imf-talks-limbo-economic-pressure-builds.
Balmer, Crispian. (2023). “Fearing illegal migration wave, Italy pushing IMF to approve loan to Tunisia.” The Arab Weekly, March 20. https://thearabweekly.com/fearing-illegal-migration-wave-italy-pushing-imf-approve-loan-tunisia.
Ben Slama, Sana. (2023). “Baʻada rafaḍa al-ra’īs Qays Sa‘īd ‘arḍahā al-’akhīr: hal tastaw‘ib baqiyyat buldān al-ittiḥād al-’ūrubbiyy al-risālah allatī istaw‘abathā ’īṭāliya.” Essahafa, October 6. https://essahafa.tn/2023/10/06/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF-%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B1/.
Bettiza, Gregorio, Bolton, Derek and Lewis, David. (2023). “Civilizationism and the Ideological Contestation of the Liberal International Order.” International Studies Review, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viad006.
Bilgic, Ali, Gasper, Des and Wilcock, Cathy. (2020). “A necessary complement to human rights: a human security perspective on migration to Europe.” Institute of Social Studies, Working Paper No. 660. https://repub.eur.nl/pub/128107/wp660.pdf.
Borselli, Hoara. (2023). “Tajani: ‘Europe isn't enough; Africa needs the UN’.” (Libero). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, September 16. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/09/tajani-leuropa-non-basta-per-lafrica-serve-lonu-libero/.
Brubaker, Rogers. (2017). “Between nationalism and civilizationism: the European populist moment in comparative perspective.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40 (8), 1191-1226. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1294700.
Capurso, Federico. (2023). “Tajani: «Africa e migranti, ecco il piano»” (La Stampa). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, July 23. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/07/tajani-africa-e-migranti-ecco-il-piano-la-stampa/.
Carbonaro, Giuliua. (2023). “Italian court blocks deportation of migrant to Tunisia, saying it’s not a safe country.” EuroNews, October 6. https://www.euronews.com/2023/10/06/italian-court-blocks-deportation-of-migrant-to-tunisia-saying-its-not-a-safe-country.
Ceccorulli, Michela. (2024). “Ontological insecurity and securitization dynamics: the co-constitution of borders between Italy and the EU after the refugee crisis of 2015.” Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 33 (1), 164-178.https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2024.2363856.
Chryssogelos, Angelos. (2021). “Is there a populist foreign policy?” Chatham House, March 30. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/03/there-populist-foreign-policy/populists-power-europe.
Cordall, Simon Speakman. (2024). “In Tunisia, refugees and migrants are expelled to the desert, left helpless.” Al-Jazeera, September 12. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/12/in-tunisia-refugees-and-migrants-are-expelled-to-the-desert-left-helpless.
Dahmani, Frida. (2024). “Giorgia Meloni revient à Tunis pour reparler d’immigration.” Jeune Afrique, April 12. https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1557555/politique/georgia-meloni-revient-a-tunis-pour-reparler-dimmigration/.
Destradi, Sandra and Plagemann, Johannes. (2019). “Populism and International Relations: (Un)predictability, personalization, and the reinforcement of existing trends in world politics.” Review of International Studies, 45 (5), 711-730. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210519000184.
Destradi, Sandra, Plagemann, Johannes and Taş, Hakkı. (2022). “Populism and the politicisation of foreign policy.” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 24 (3), 475-492. https://doi.org/10.1177/13691481221075944.
Diez, Thomas and von Lucke, Franziskus. (2024). “Not anxious enough: The discursive articulation of ontological security in the European Parliament.” Review of International Studies, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210524000640.
Diwan, Ishac, Alaya, Hachemi and Meddeb, Hamza. (2024). “Tunisia’s Economy in the Eye of the Storm.” Malcolm H. Kerr Carnegie Middle East Center, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/10/tunisias-economy-in-the-eye-of-the-storm?lang=en¢er=middle-east.
Dudlak, Tamas. (2025). “Civilisational Populism: Ideology and Discourse.” In: Routledge Handbook of Populism and Foreign Policy (eds David Cadier, Angelos Chrysogelos and Sandra Destradi). Abingdon: Routledge, 623-
Dumont, Julia. (2024). “Two years of anti-immigrant policy in Giorgia Meloni’s Italy.” InfoMigrants, October 10. https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/60758/two-years-of-antiimmigrant-policy-in-giorgia-melonis-italy.
European Commission. (2023). “Press statement by President von der Leyen with Tunisian President Saied, Dutch Prime Minister Rutte and Italian Prime Minister Meloni.” European Commission, July 15. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/statement_23_3870.
European Commission. (2024). “L'Union européenne poursuit la mise en œuvre du Mémorandum d'entente avec la Tunisie en déboursant 150 millions d'euros de soutien financier.” European Commission, Directorate-General for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Negotiations. https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/news/lunion-europeenne-poursuit-la-mise-en-oeuvre-du-memorandum-dentente-avec-la-tunisie-en-deboursant-2024-03-04_en.
European Council on Refugees and Exiles. (2023). “EU External Partners: Tunisia ‘Rejects’ EU Funding Casting Doubt on Deal as Reports of Abuse Continue to Mount, New Attack by So-called Libyan Coast Guard.” European Council on Refugees and Exiles, October 6. https://ecre.org/eu-external-partners-tunisia-rejects-eu-funding-casting-doubt-on-deal-as-reports-of-abuse-continue-to-mount-new-attack-by-so-called-libyan-coast-guard/.
European Ombudsman. (2023). “Strategic initiative SI/5/2023/MHZ on how the European Commission intends to guarantee respect for human rights in the context of the EU-Tunisia Memorandum of Understanding.” European Ombudsman, September 13. https://www.ombudsman.europa.eu/en/opening-summary/en/175102.
European Parliament. (2023). “EU Memorandum of Understanding with Tunisia: lack of call for release of political prisoners, legal basis, and human rights conditionality.” European Parliament, Parliamentary Question – P-002382/2023. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/P-9-2023-002382_EN.html.
European Parliament. (2024). “Verbatim Report of Proceedings.” European Parliament, October 22.https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/CRE-10-2024-10-22-ITM-023_EN.html.
European Union External Action. (2022). “European Diplomatic Academy: Opening remarks by High Representative Josep Borrell at the inauguration of the pilot programme.” European Union External Action, October 13. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/european-diplomatic-academy-opening-remarks-high-representative-josep-borrell-inauguration-pilot_en.
Farrell, Nicholas. (2023). “How Giorgia Meloni stabilised Italy.” The Spectator, October 29. https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/how-giorgia-meloni-stabilised-italy/.
Fernández-Molina, Irene and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2024). “Understanding migration power in international studies.” International Affairs, 100 (6), 2461-2479.
Freier, Luisa F., Micinski, Nicholas R. and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2021). “Refugee commodification: the diffusion of refugee rent-seeking in the Global South.” Third World Quarterly, 42 (11), 2747-2766.
Gasteli, Nassim and Kaval, Allan. (2024). “Giorgia Meloni returns to Tunis to consolidate her migration cooperation project.” Le Monde, April 19. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2024/04/19/giorgia-meloni-returns-to-tunis-to-consolidate-her-migration-cooperation-project_6668888_124.html.
Geddie, Eve. (2023). “In Tunisia, the EU is repeating an old and dangerous mistake.” Politico, September 21. https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-team-europe-tunisia-president-kais-saied-ybia-refugee-migrant-crisis/.
Giurlando, Philip, and Monteleone, Carla. (2024). “Institutional change, sovereigntist contestation and the limits of populism: evidence from southern Europe.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 2047-2067.
Graff, Agnieszka and Korolczuk, Elżbiet. (2022). Anti-Gender Politics in the Populist Moment. London: Routledge.
Griffini, Marianna and Rosina, Matilde. (2025). “An Ideological Divide? Political Parties’ Discourse in Italy’s Migration Cooperation with Libya and Albania.” The International Spectator, 60 (1), 116-135.
Haastrup, Toni, Duggan, Niall and Mah, Luis. (2021). “Navigating ontological (in)security in EU-Africa relations.” Politics and International Relations, 7 (4), 541-557. https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2021.1981144.
Hlaoui, Nourredine. (2023). “Entre la Tunisie et l’Italie, une bonne entente: Un memorandum en chasse un autre.” La Presse, October 26. https://lapresse.tn/2023/10/26/entre-la-tunisie-et-litalie-une-bonne-entente-un-memorandum-en-chasse-un-autre/.
Humble, Kristian. (2023). “Cooperation and Compromise: Populism, Multilateralism, and International Law.” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, January 13. https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2023/01/13/cooperation-and-compromise-populism-multilateralism-and-international-law/.
Indelicato, Maria Elena and Lopes, Maíra Magalhães. (2024). “Understanding populist far-right anti-immigration and anti-gender stances beyond the paradigm of gender as ‘a symbolic glue’: Giorgia Meloni’s modern motherhood, neo-Catholicism, and reproductive racism.” European Journal of Women’s Studies, 31 (1), 6-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505068241230819.
International Crisis Group. (2023). “Tunisia’s Challenge: Avoiding Default and Preserving Peace.” International Crisis Group, December 22. https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/tunisia/234-tunisias-challenge-avoiding-default-and-preserving.
Jelassi, Khalil. (2023). S”ignature d’un mémorandum d’entente sur un partenariat stratégique et global entre la Tunisie et l’Union Européenne: Migration, économie et rapprochement des peuples!” La Presse, July 17. https://lapresse.tn/2023/07/17/signature-dun-memorandum-dentente-sur-un-partenariat-strategique-et-global-entre-la-tunisie-et-lunion-europeenne-migration-economie-et-rapprochement-des-peuples//
Kington, Tom. (2022). “Giorgia Meloni is first west European leader to believe Great Replacement Conspiracy Theory.” The Times, https://www.thetimes.com/world/europe/article/giorgia-meloni-is-first-west-european-leader-to-believe-great-replacement-conspiracy-theory-pddmf5vsf.
Kinnvall, Catarina. (2019). “Populism, ontological insecurity and Hindutva: Modi and the masculinization of Indian politics.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 32 (3), 283-302. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2019.1588851.
Lavenex, Sandra. (2001). “Migration and the EU’s new eastern border: between realism and liberalism.” Journal of European Public Policy, 8 (1), 24-42.
La Presse. (2024). “Meloni: Le renforcement du partenariat avec la Tunisie est devenu <<une priorité pour l’Italie et l’Union européenne>>.” La Presse, April 17. https://lapresse.tn/2024/04/17/meloni-le-renforcement-du-partenariat-avec-la-tunisie-est-devenu-une-priorite-pour-litalie-et-lunion-europeenne/.
Le Temps. (2023a). “Partenariat stratégique et global entre la Tunisie et l’UE : Au-delà du mémorandum…” Le Temps, July 17. https://letemps.news/2023/07/17/partenariat-strategique-et-global-entre-la-tunisie-et-lue-au-dela-du-memorandum/.
Le Temps. (2023b). “Migration irrégulière : Taoufik Charfeddine appelle à une mobilisation arabe en faveur de la « position souveraine » de la Tunisie.” Le Temps, March 1. https://letemps.news/2023/03/01/migration-irreguliere-taoufik-charfeddine-appelle-a-une-mobilisation-arabe-en-faveur-de-la-position-souveraine-de-la-tunisie/.
Le Temps. (2023c). “Migration: le PDL manifeste devant le siège de l’ambassade d’Italie à Tunis.” Le Temps, June 15. https://letemps.news/2023/06/15/migration-le-pdl-manifeste-devant-le-siege-de-lambassade-ditalie-a-tunis/.
Lehoczki, Bernadett. (2023). “Populist sovereigntism and international cooperation: the case of Brazil and Hungary.” Contemporary Politics, 30 (2), 177-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2023.2267364.
Löfflmann, Georg. (2024). The Politics of Antagonism: Populist Security Narratives and the Remaking of Political Identity. London: Routledge.
Lynch, Suzanne. (2022). “Sorry, not sorry: EU’s top diplomat stands firm amid racism backlash.” Politico, October 19. https://www.politico.eu/article/josep-borrell-faux-pas-latest-in-long-line-of-ill-judged-comments/.
Mandelc, Damjan. (2025). “Religion, Migration, and the Far-Right: How European Populism Frames Religious Pluralism.” Religions, 16 (9), 1192.
Meddeb, Hamza and Louati, Fakhreddine. (2024). “Tunisia’s Transformation into a Transit Hub: Illegal Migration and Policy Dilemmas.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/03/tunisias-transformation-into-a-transit-hub-illegal-migration-and-policy-dilemmas?lang=en.
Middle East Monitor. (2025). “Tunisia president denies signing deportation deal with EU.” Middle East Monitor, April 7. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20250407-tunisia-president-denies-signing-deportation-deal-with-eu/.
Mitzen, Jennifer. (2006). “Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma.” European Journal of International Relations, 12 (3), 341-370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066106067346.
Mitzen, Jennifer. (2018). “Feeling at Home in Europe: Migration, Ontological Security, and the Political Psychology of EU Bordering.” Political Psychology, 39 (6), 1373-1387. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45095213.
Mondon, Aurelien. (2022). “Populism, public opinion, and the mainstreaming of the far right: The ‘immigration issue’ and the construction of a reactionary people.” Politics, 45 (1), 19-36. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957221104726.
Morieson, Nicholas. (2023). “Understanding Civilizational Populism in Europe and North America: The United States, France, and Poland.” Religions, 14 (2), 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14020154.
Mos, Marijn and Piovezan, Igor Macedo. (2024). “Leadership in international populism: How Viktor Orbán’s Hungary shows the way.” New Perspectives, 32 (4), 329-346. https://doi.org/10.1177/2336825X241282599.
Mudde, Cas. (2004). “The Populist Zeitgeist.” Government & Opposition, 39 (4), 541-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x.
Mzioudet, Houda. (2024). “Black Racial Politics and the Racialist Populist Backlash during Tunisia’s Democratic Transition.” POMEPS, Race Politics and Colonial Legacies: France, Africa and the Middle East. https://pomeps.org/black-racial-politics-and-the-racialist-populist-backlash-during-tunisias-democratic-transition.
Nawaat. (2023). “Against the anti-migrant and anti-Black policies of the EU and Tunisia.” Nawaat, August 15. https://nawaat.org/2023/08/15/against-the-anti-migrant-and-anti-black-policies-of-the-eu-and-tunisia/.
The New Arab. (2023). “Tunisia President Kais Saied rejects IMF ‘foreign diktats,’ casting shadow over bailout.” The New Arab, April 6. https://www.newarab.com/news/tunisia-president-kais-saied-rejects-imf-foreign-diktats.
Norman, Kelsey P. and Micinski, Nicholas R. (2023). “The European Union’s migration management aid: Developing democracies or supporting authoritarianism?” International Migration, 61 (4), 57-71.
Pacciardi, Agnese, Spandler, Kilian and Söderbaum, Fredrik. (2024). “Beyond exit: how populists disengage from international institutions.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 2025-2045. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae185/.
Rathgeb, Philip and Hopkin, Jonathan. (2023). “How the Eurozone shapes populism: a comparative political economy approach.” Journal of European Public Policy, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2023.2269972.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023a). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ ra’īsat al-mufawaḍiyyah al-’urubbiyyah ’Ūrsūlā fūn dīr Layīn wa ra’īsat majlis al-wuzarā’ al-’īṭāliyyah Jūrjiyyāh Mīlūnī wal-wazīr al-’awwal al-hūlandiyy Mārk Rūttih.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, June 11. https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7-%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023b). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ al-sayyid Nabīl ‘Ammār, wazīr al-shu’ūn al-khārijiyyah wal-hijrah wal-tūnisiyyīn bal-khārij.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, October 5.https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%84-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%8C-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A4%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC-1.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023c). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ al-sayyid Antonio Tajani, nā’ib ra’īsat al-ḥukūmah al-’īṭāliyyah wazīr al-khārijiyyah wal-ta‘āwun al-dawliyy.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, October 20. https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AF-antonio-tajani%D8%8C-%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9.
Roggero, Caterina. (2024). “The European Union and Saïed’s Tunisia: Shifting from “Shared Values” to Strategic Interests.” Italian Institute for International Political Studies, October 4. https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/the-european-union-and-saieds-tunisia-shifting-from-shared-values-to-strategic-interests-185824.
Sayari, Badreddine. (2023). “Ma‘ al-shurūq.. tūnis tafāwaḍa al-nidd lil-nidd.” Al-Shurūq, July 19. https://www.alchourouk.com/journal/%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%82-%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%91-%D9%84%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%91.
Scazzieri, Luigi. (2022). “Europe’s Migration Problems are Back.” Centre for European Reform, November 22. https://www.cer.eu/insights/europes-migration-problems-are-back.
Snoussi, Lotfi Arbi. (2024). “Fī al-radd ‘alá <<al-qalaq al-’ūrubbiyy>>.” Essahafa, June 28, https://essahafa.tn/2024/06/28/%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b1%d8%af%d9%91-%d8%b9%d9%84%d9%89-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%82%d9%84%d9%82-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%88%d8%b1%d9%88%d8%a8%d9%8a/.
Soborski, Rafal, Garapich, Michał and Jochymek, Anna. (2025). “Between civilization, race, and nation: Transnational dimensions of far-right activism in post-Brexit Britain.” Politics, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957251380256.
Stewart, Blake. (2020). “The Rise of Far-Right Civilizationism.” Critical Sociology, 46 (7-8), 120-1220. https://doi.org/10.1177/089692051989405.
Strik, Tineke and Rubbesom, Ruben. (2024). “Compliance or Complicity? An Analysis of the EU-Tunisia Deal in the Context of the Externalisation of Migration Control.” Netherlands International Law Review, 71, 199-225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40802-024-00251-x.
Taguieff, Pierre-André. (1997). “Populism and Political Science: From Conceptual Illusions to Real Problems.” Vingtième Siècle. Revue d’Histoire, 56 (4), 4-33. https://doi.org/10.3917/ving.p1997.56n1.0004.
Tajani, Antonio. (2023). “Tajani: ‘Italy is no longer alone on migration. National security actions will not suffice.” (Avvenire). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, July 26. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/07/tajani-sulle-migrazioni-litalia-non-e-piu-sola-le-azioni-securitarie-nazionali-non-basteranno-avvenire/.
Talbot, Valeria and Fruganti, Lorenzo. (2023). “Italy’s Renewed Activism in the ‘Wider Mediterranean’: A Bet for the Future.” Italian Institute for International Political Studies, October 4. https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/italys-renewed-activism-in-the-wider-mediterranean-a-bet-for-the-future-146369.
The Arab Weekly. (2023). “Italian PM pledges ‘all-round support to Tunisia’ after talks with Kais Saied.” June 7. https://thearabweekly.com/italian-pm-pledges-all-round-support-tunisia-after-talks-kais-saied.
Thorliefsson, Cathrine. (2021). “In pursuit of purity: populist nationalism and the racialization of difference.” Identities, 28 (2), 186-202. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/10.1080/1070289X.2019.1635767.
Townsend, Mark. (2025). “Europe overhauls funding to Tunisia after Guardian exposes migrant abuse.” The Guardian, January 24. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/jan/24/eu-human-rights-tunisia-migrant-security-forces-migration.
Van Kessel, Stijn. (2024). “Populism, the far right and EU integration: beyond simple dichotomies.” Politics & International Relations, 47 (1), 127-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2025.2434341.
Van Moorsel, Jim and Bonfiglio, Ayla. (2024). “A conscious coupling: The EU-Egypt ‘strategc and comprehensive partnership’.” Mixed Migration Centre, April 29. https://mixedmigration.org/eu-egypt-partnership/.
Wajner, Daniel, Destradi, Sandra and Zürn, Michael. (2024). “The effects of global populism: assessing the populist impact on international affairs.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 1819-1833. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae217.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2022a). “Civilizational Populism Around the World.” Populism & Politics, European Center for Populism Studies. https://doi.org/10.55271/pp0012.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2022b). “Civilizational Populism: Definition, Literature, Theory, and Practice.” Religions, 13, 1026. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13111026.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2023). “Civilizational Populism in Domestic and Foreign Policy: The Case of Turkey.” Religions, 14 (5), 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050631
Civilizational Populism and Migration Diplomacy: Tunisia, the European Union, and Italy
Helen L. Murphey
Civilizational populists prioritize territorial sovereignty in their approach to migration. In instances of North-South inequality, however, transit countries may be incentivized to accede to ideologically unpalatable agreements. To understand how these compromises are legitimized, this paper analyses Tunisia’s negotiations with the European Union following the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding in July 2023 that laid the foundations for cooperation over irregular migration. The deal faced challenges on both the Tunisian and EU sides. Tunisian president Kais Saied, a civilizational populist, chafed at perceived EU paternalism and threats to Tunisia’s sovereignty. The deal was also controversial within the EU due to the Saied regime’s human rights violations, which led to further scrutiny of the Tunisian government’s migration management practices. This article finds that Italy’s mediation, spearheaded by Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni, was successful in addressing these tensions. By positioning Italy as separate from EU paternalism through a shared framework informed by civilizational populism, Saied could justify engaging in positive-sum diplomacy with the Meloni government and symbolically dispel perceptions of diplomatic asymmetry.
Keywords: migration, European Union, Tunisia, populist foreign policy, Italy
References
Abderrahim, Tasnim. (2024). “Maghreb migrations: How North Africa and Europe can work together on sub-Saharan migration.” European Council on Foreign Relations, September 5. https://ecfr.eu/publication/maghreb-migrations-how-north-africa-and-europe-can-work-together-on-sub-saharan-migration/.
Adamson, Fiona B. and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2019). “Migration Diplomacy in World Politics.” International Studies Perspectives, 20, 113-128.
Al Jazeera. (2023). “Wuṣifat bil-ʻunṣuriyyah..taṣrīḥāt Saʻīd bi-shaʼn al-muhājirīn min ʼAfrīqiyā janūb aṣ-ṣaḥrāʼ tuthīr al-jadal.” Al Jazeera, February 22. https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2023/2/22/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-77.
Al-Shurūq. (2023a). “Jūrjiyyāh Mīlūnī: ‘alaynā ʼiẓhār al-iḥtirām ma‘ tūnis wa-miṣr.” Al-Shurūq, October 26. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7-%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7-%D8%A5%D8%B8%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1.
Al-Shurūq. (2023b). “Ladá istiqbālihi ‘Ammār.. Sa‘īd yarudd ‘alá ‘arḍ al-ittiḥād al-’ūrubbiyy ḥawla milaff al-hijrah.” Al-Shurūq, October 2, 2023. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84-%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9.
Al-Shurūq. (2024). “Sa‘īd ya‘dū ’ilá i‘timād muqāribah jamā‘iyyah li-mas’alat al-hijrah wa-muḥārabat shabakāt al-mutājarah bil-bashar.” Al-Shurūq, April 17, 2024. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B9%D9%88-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A3%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1.
Albanese, Anthony. (2025). “Right-Wing Populism, Religion, and Civilizational Identity.” Religions, 16 (10), 1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101270.
Ambrosini, Maurizio. (2025). “The populist far right paradox: the identification of the enemy and its exceptions in the immigration policies of the Meloni government in Italy.” Comparative Migration Studies, 13:17, 1-19.
Amnesty International. (2023). “Tunisia: President’s racist speech incites a wave of violence against Black Africans.” Amnesty International, March 10. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/03/tunisia-presidents-racist-speech-incites-a-wave-of-violence-against-black-africans/.
Amnesty International. (2024). “Tunisia: Repressive crackdown on civil society organizations following months of escalating violence against migrants and refugees.” Amnesty International, May 16. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/05/tunisia-repressive-crackdown-on-civil-society-organizations-following-months-of-escalating-violence-against-migrants-and-refugees/.
Bajec, Alessandra. (2023). “Tunisia IMF talks in limbo as economic pressure builds.” The New Arab, April 17. https://www.newarab.com/analysis/tunisia-imf-talks-limbo-economic-pressure-builds.
Balmer, Crispian. (2023). “Fearing illegal migration wave, Italy pushing IMF to approve loan to Tunisia.” The Arab Weekly, March 20. https://thearabweekly.com/fearing-illegal-migration-wave-italy-pushing-imf-approve-loan-tunisia.
Ben Slama, Sana. (2023). “Baʻada rafaḍa al-ra’īs Qays Sa‘īd ‘arḍahā al-’akhīr: hal tastaw‘ib baqiyyat buldān al-ittiḥād al-’ūrubbiyy al-risālah allatī istaw‘abathā ’īṭāliya.” Essahafa, October 6. https://essahafa.tn/2023/10/06/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF-%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B1/.
Bettiza, Gregorio, Bolton, Derek and Lewis, David. (2023). “Civilizationism and the Ideological Contestation of the Liberal International Order.” International Studies Review, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viad006.
Bilgic, Ali, Gasper, Des and Wilcock, Cathy. (2020). “A necessary complement to human rights: a human security perspective on migration to Europe.” Institute of Social Studies, Working Paper No. 660. https://repub.eur.nl/pub/128107/wp660.pdf.
Borselli, Hoara. (2023). “Tajani: ‘Europe isn't enough; Africa needs the UN’.” (Libero). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, September 16. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/09/tajani-leuropa-non-basta-per-lafrica-serve-lonu-libero/.
Brubaker, Rogers. (2017). “Between nationalism and civilizationism: the European populist moment in comparative perspective.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40 (8), 1191-1226. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1294700.
Capurso, Federico. (2023). “Tajani: «Africa e migranti, ecco il piano»” (La Stampa). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, July 23. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/07/tajani-africa-e-migranti-ecco-il-piano-la-stampa/.
Carbonaro, Giuliua. (2023). “Italian court blocks deportation of migrant to Tunisia, saying it’s not a safe country.” EuroNews, October 6. https://www.euronews.com/2023/10/06/italian-court-blocks-deportation-of-migrant-to-tunisia-saying-its-not-a-safe-country.
Ceccorulli, Michela. (2024). “Ontological insecurity and securitization dynamics: the co-constitution of borders between Italy and the EU after the refugee crisis of 2015.” Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 33 (1), 164-178.https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2024.2363856.
Chryssogelos, Angelos. (2021). “Is there a populist foreign policy?” Chatham House, March 30. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/03/there-populist-foreign-policy/populists-power-europe.
Cordall, Simon Speakman. (2024). “In Tunisia, refugees and migrants are expelled to the desert, left helpless.” Al-Jazeera, September 12. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/12/in-tunisia-refugees-and-migrants-are-expelled-to-the-desert-left-helpless.
Dahmani, Frida. (2024). “Giorgia Meloni revient à Tunis pour reparler d’immigration.” Jeune Afrique, April 12. https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1557555/politique/georgia-meloni-revient-a-tunis-pour-reparler-dimmigration/.
Destradi, Sandra and Plagemann, Johannes. (2019). “Populism and International Relations: (Un)predictability, personalization, and the reinforcement of existing trends in world politics.” Review of International Studies, 45 (5), 711-730. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210519000184.
Destradi, Sandra, Plagemann, Johannes and Taş, Hakkı. (2022). “Populism and the politicisation of foreign policy.” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 24 (3), 475-492. https://doi.org/10.1177/13691481221075944.
Diez, Thomas and von Lucke, Franziskus. (2024). “Not anxious enough: The discursive articulation of ontological security in the European Parliament.” Review of International Studies, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210524000640.
Diwan, Ishac, Alaya, Hachemi and Meddeb, Hamza. (2024). “Tunisia’s Economy in the Eye of the Storm.” Malcolm H. Kerr Carnegie Middle East Center, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/10/tunisias-economy-in-the-eye-of-the-storm?lang=en¢er=middle-east.
Dudlak, Tamas. (2025). “Civilisational Populism: Ideology and Discourse.” In: Routledge Handbook of Populism and Foreign Policy (eds David Cadier, Angelos Chrysogelos and Sandra Destradi). Abingdon: Routledge, 623-
Dumont, Julia. (2024). “Two years of anti-immigrant policy in Giorgia Meloni’s Italy.” InfoMigrants, October 10. https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/60758/two-years-of-antiimmigrant-policy-in-giorgia-melonis-italy.
European Commission. (2023). “Press statement by President von der Leyen with Tunisian President Saied, Dutch Prime Minister Rutte and Italian Prime Minister Meloni.” European Commission, July 15. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/statement_23_3870.
European Commission. (2024). “L'Union européenne poursuit la mise en œuvre du Mémorandum d'entente avec la Tunisie en déboursant 150 millions d'euros de soutien financier.” European Commission, Directorate-General for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Negotiations. https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/news/lunion-europeenne-poursuit-la-mise-en-oeuvre-du-memorandum-dentente-avec-la-tunisie-en-deboursant-2024-03-04_en.
European Council on Refugees and Exiles. (2023). “EU External Partners: Tunisia ‘Rejects’ EU Funding Casting Doubt on Deal as Reports of Abuse Continue to Mount, New Attack by So-called Libyan Coast Guard.” European Council on Refugees and Exiles, October 6. https://ecre.org/eu-external-partners-tunisia-rejects-eu-funding-casting-doubt-on-deal-as-reports-of-abuse-continue-to-mount-new-attack-by-so-called-libyan-coast-guard/.
European Ombudsman. (2023). “Strategic initiative SI/5/2023/MHZ on how the European Commission intends to guarantee respect for human rights in the context of the EU-Tunisia Memorandum of Understanding.” European Ombudsman, September 13. https://www.ombudsman.europa.eu/en/opening-summary/en/175102.
European Parliament. (2023). “EU Memorandum of Understanding with Tunisia: lack of call for release of political prisoners, legal basis, and human rights conditionality.” European Parliament, Parliamentary Question – P-002382/2023. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/P-9-2023-002382_EN.html.
European Parliament. (2024). “Verbatim Report of Proceedings.” European Parliament, October 22.https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/CRE-10-2024-10-22-ITM-023_EN.html.
European Union External Action. (2022). “European Diplomatic Academy: Opening remarks by High Representative Josep Borrell at the inauguration of the pilot programme.” European Union External Action, October 13. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/european-diplomatic-academy-opening-remarks-high-representative-josep-borrell-inauguration-pilot_en.
Farrell, Nicholas. (2023). “How Giorgia Meloni stabilised Italy.” The Spectator, October 29. https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/how-giorgia-meloni-stabilised-italy/.
Fernández-Molina, Irene and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2024). “Understanding migration power in international studies.” International Affairs, 100 (6), 2461-2479.
Freier, Luisa F., Micinski, Nicholas R. and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2021). “Refugee commodification: the diffusion of refugee rent-seeking in the Global South.” Third World Quarterly, 42 (11), 2747-2766.
Gasteli, Nassim and Kaval, Allan. (2024). “Giorgia Meloni returns to Tunis to consolidate her migration cooperation project.” Le Monde, April 19. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2024/04/19/giorgia-meloni-returns-to-tunis-to-consolidate-her-migration-cooperation-project_6668888_124.html.
Geddie, Eve. (2023). “In Tunisia, the EU is repeating an old and dangerous mistake.” Politico, September 21. https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-team-europe-tunisia-president-kais-saied-ybia-refugee-migrant-crisis/.
Giurlando, Philip, and Monteleone, Carla. (2024). “Institutional change, sovereigntist contestation and the limits of populism: evidence from southern Europe.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 2047-2067.
Graff, Agnieszka and Korolczuk, Elżbiet. (2022). Anti-Gender Politics in the Populist Moment. London: Routledge.
Griffini, Marianna and Rosina, Matilde. (2025). “An Ideological Divide? Political Parties’ Discourse in Italy’s Migration Cooperation with Libya and Albania.” The International Spectator, 60 (1), 116-135.
Haastrup, Toni, Duggan, Niall and Mah, Luis. (2021). “Navigating ontological (in)security in EU-Africa relations.” Politics and International Relations, 7 (4), 541-557. https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2021.1981144.
Hlaoui, Nourredine. (2023). “Entre la Tunisie et l’Italie, une bonne entente: Un memorandum en chasse un autre.” La Presse, October 26. https://lapresse.tn/2023/10/26/entre-la-tunisie-et-litalie-une-bonne-entente-un-memorandum-en-chasse-un-autre/.
Humble, Kristian. (2023). “Cooperation and Compromise: Populism, Multilateralism, and International Law.” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, January 13. https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2023/01/13/cooperation-and-compromise-populism-multilateralism-and-international-law/.
Indelicato, Maria Elena and Lopes, Maíra Magalhães. (2024). “Understanding populist far-right anti-immigration and anti-gender stances beyond the paradigm of gender as ‘a symbolic glue’: Giorgia Meloni’s modern motherhood, neo-Catholicism, and reproductive racism.” European Journal of Women’s Studies, 31 (1), 6-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505068241230819.
International Crisis Group. (2023). “Tunisia’s Challenge: Avoiding Default and Preserving Peace.” International Crisis Group, December 22. https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/tunisia/234-tunisias-challenge-avoiding-default-and-preserving.
Jelassi, Khalil. (2023). S”ignature d’un mémorandum d’entente sur un partenariat stratégique et global entre la Tunisie et l’Union Européenne: Migration, économie et rapprochement des peuples!” La Presse, July 17. https://lapresse.tn/2023/07/17/signature-dun-memorandum-dentente-sur-un-partenariat-strategique-et-global-entre-la-tunisie-et-lunion-europeenne-migration-economie-et-rapprochement-des-peuples//
Kington, Tom. (2022). “Giorgia Meloni is first west European leader to believe Great Replacement Conspiracy Theory.” The Times, https://www.thetimes.com/world/europe/article/giorgia-meloni-is-first-west-european-leader-to-believe-great-replacement-conspiracy-theory-pddmf5vsf.
Kinnvall, Catarina. (2019). “Populism, ontological insecurity and Hindutva: Modi and the masculinization of Indian politics.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 32 (3), 283-302. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2019.1588851.
Lavenex, Sandra. (2001). “Migration and the EU’s new eastern border: between realism and liberalism.” Journal of European Public Policy, 8 (1), 24-42.
La Presse. (2024). “Meloni: Le renforcement du partenariat avec la Tunisie est devenu <<une priorité pour l’Italie et l’Union européenne>>.” La Presse, April 17. https://lapresse.tn/2024/04/17/meloni-le-renforcement-du-partenariat-avec-la-tunisie-est-devenu-une-priorite-pour-litalie-et-lunion-europeenne/.
Le Temps. (2023a). “Partenariat stratégique et global entre la Tunisie et l’UE : Au-delà du mémorandum…” Le Temps, July 17. https://letemps.news/2023/07/17/partenariat-strategique-et-global-entre-la-tunisie-et-lue-au-dela-du-memorandum/.
Le Temps. (2023b). “Migration irrégulière : Taoufik Charfeddine appelle à une mobilisation arabe en faveur de la « position souveraine » de la Tunisie.” Le Temps, March 1. https://letemps.news/2023/03/01/migration-irreguliere-taoufik-charfeddine-appelle-a-une-mobilisation-arabe-en-faveur-de-la-position-souveraine-de-la-tunisie/.
Le Temps. (2023c). “Migration: le PDL manifeste devant le siège de l’ambassade d’Italie à Tunis.” Le Temps, June 15. https://letemps.news/2023/06/15/migration-le-pdl-manifeste-devant-le-siege-de-lambassade-ditalie-a-tunis/.
Lehoczki, Bernadett. (2023). “Populist sovereigntism and international cooperation: the case of Brazil and Hungary.” Contemporary Politics, 30 (2), 177-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2023.2267364.
Löfflmann, Georg. (2024). The Politics of Antagonism: Populist Security Narratives and the Remaking of Political Identity. London: Routledge.
Lynch, Suzanne. (2022). “Sorry, not sorry: EU’s top diplomat stands firm amid racism backlash.” Politico, October 19. https://www.politico.eu/article/josep-borrell-faux-pas-latest-in-long-line-of-ill-judged-comments/.
Mandelc, Damjan. (2025). “Religion, Migration, and the Far-Right: How European Populism Frames Religious Pluralism.” Religions, 16 (9), 1192.
Meddeb, Hamza and Louati, Fakhreddine. (2024). “Tunisia’s Transformation into a Transit Hub: Illegal Migration and Policy Dilemmas.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/03/tunisias-transformation-into-a-transit-hub-illegal-migration-and-policy-dilemmas?lang=en.
Middle East Monitor. (2025). “Tunisia president denies signing deportation deal with EU.” Middle East Monitor, April 7. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20250407-tunisia-president-denies-signing-deportation-deal-with-eu/.
Mitzen, Jennifer. (2006). “Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma.” European Journal of International Relations, 12 (3), 341-370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066106067346.
Mitzen, Jennifer. (2018). “Feeling at Home in Europe: Migration, Ontological Security, and the Political Psychology of EU Bordering.” Political Psychology, 39 (6), 1373-1387. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45095213.
Mondon, Aurelien. (2022). “Populism, public opinion, and the mainstreaming of the far right: The ‘immigration issue’ and the construction of a reactionary people.” Politics, 45 (1), 19-36. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957221104726.
Morieson, Nicholas. (2023). “Understanding Civilizational Populism in Europe and North America: The United States, France, and Poland.” Religions, 14 (2), 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14020154.
Mos, Marijn and Piovezan, Igor Macedo. (2024). “Leadership in international populism: How Viktor Orbán’s Hungary shows the way.” New Perspectives, 32 (4), 329-346. https://doi.org/10.1177/2336825X241282599.
Mudde, Cas. (2004). “The Populist Zeitgeist.” Government & Opposition, 39 (4), 541-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x.
Mzioudet, Houda. (2024). “Black Racial Politics and the Racialist Populist Backlash during Tunisia’s Democratic Transition.” POMEPS, Race Politics and Colonial Legacies: France, Africa and the Middle East. https://pomeps.org/black-racial-politics-and-the-racialist-populist-backlash-during-tunisias-democratic-transition.
Nawaat. (2023). “Against the anti-migrant and anti-Black policies of the EU and Tunisia.” Nawaat, August 15. https://nawaat.org/2023/08/15/against-the-anti-migrant-and-anti-black-policies-of-the-eu-and-tunisia/.
The New Arab. (2023). “Tunisia President Kais Saied rejects IMF ‘foreign diktats,’ casting shadow over bailout.” The New Arab, April 6. https://www.newarab.com/news/tunisia-president-kais-saied-rejects-imf-foreign-diktats.
Norman, Kelsey P. and Micinski, Nicholas R. (2023). “The European Union’s migration management aid: Developing democracies or supporting authoritarianism?” International Migration, 61 (4), 57-71.
Pacciardi, Agnese, Spandler, Kilian and Söderbaum, Fredrik. (2024). “Beyond exit: how populists disengage from international institutions.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 2025-2045. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae185/.
Rathgeb, Philip and Hopkin, Jonathan. (2023). “How the Eurozone shapes populism: a comparative political economy approach.” Journal of European Public Policy, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2023.2269972.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023a). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ ra’īsat al-mufawaḍiyyah al-’urubbiyyah ’Ūrsūlā fūn dīr Layīn wa ra’īsat majlis al-wuzarā’ al-’īṭāliyyah Jūrjiyyāh Mīlūnī wal-wazīr al-’awwal al-hūlandiyy Mārk Rūttih.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, June 11. https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7-%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023b). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ al-sayyid Nabīl ‘Ammār, wazīr al-shu’ūn al-khārijiyyah wal-hijrah wal-tūnisiyyīn bal-khārij.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, October 5.https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%84-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%8C-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A4%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC-1.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023c). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ al-sayyid Antonio Tajani, nā’ib ra’īsat al-ḥukūmah al-’īṭāliyyah wazīr al-khārijiyyah wal-ta‘āwun al-dawliyy.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, October 20. https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AF-antonio-tajani%D8%8C-%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9.
Roggero, Caterina. (2024). “The European Union and Saïed’s Tunisia: Shifting from “Shared Values” to Strategic Interests.” Italian Institute for International Political Studies, October 4. https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/the-european-union-and-saieds-tunisia-shifting-from-shared-values-to-strategic-interests-185824.
Sayari, Badreddine. (2023). “Ma‘ al-shurūq.. tūnis tafāwaḍa al-nidd lil-nidd.” Al-Shurūq, July 19. https://www.alchourouk.com/journal/%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%82-%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%91-%D9%84%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%91.
Scazzieri, Luigi. (2022). “Europe’s Migration Problems are Back.” Centre for European Reform, November 22. https://www.cer.eu/insights/europes-migration-problems-are-back.
Snoussi, Lotfi Arbi. (2024). “Fī al-radd ‘alá <<al-qalaq al-’ūrubbiyy>>.” Essahafa, June 28, https://essahafa.tn/2024/06/28/%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b1%d8%af%d9%91-%d8%b9%d9%84%d9%89-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%82%d9%84%d9%82-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%88%d8%b1%d9%88%d8%a8%d9%8a/.
Soborski, Rafal, Garapich, Michał and Jochymek, Anna. (2025). “Between civilization, race, and nation: Transnational dimensions of far-right activism in post-Brexit Britain.” Politics, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957251380256.
Stewart, Blake. (2020). “The Rise of Far-Right Civilizationism.” Critical Sociology, 46 (7-8), 120-1220. https://doi.org/10.1177/089692051989405.
Strik, Tineke and Rubbesom, Ruben. (2024). “Compliance or Complicity? An Analysis of the EU-Tunisia Deal in the Context of the Externalisation of Migration Control.” Netherlands International Law Review, 71, 199-225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40802-024-00251-x.
Taguieff, Pierre-André. (1997). “Populism and Political Science: From Conceptual Illusions to Real Problems.” Vingtième Siècle. Revue d’Histoire, 56 (4), 4-33. https://doi.org/10.3917/ving.p1997.56n1.0004.
Tajani, Antonio. (2023). “Tajani: ‘Italy is no longer alone on migration. National security actions will not suffice.” (Avvenire). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, July 26. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/07/tajani-sulle-migrazioni-litalia-non-e-piu-sola-le-azioni-securitarie-nazionali-non-basteranno-avvenire/.
Talbot, Valeria and Fruganti, Lorenzo. (2023). “Italy’s Renewed Activism in the ‘Wider Mediterranean’: A Bet for the Future.” Italian Institute for International Political Studies, October 4. https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/italys-renewed-activism-in-the-wider-mediterranean-a-bet-for-the-future-146369.
The Arab Weekly. (2023). “Italian PM pledges ‘all-round support to Tunisia’ after talks with Kais Saied.” June 7. https://thearabweekly.com/italian-pm-pledges-all-round-support-tunisia-after-talks-kais-saied.
Thorliefsson, Cathrine. (2021). “In pursuit of purity: populist nationalism and the racialization of difference.” Identities, 28 (2), 186-202. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/10.1080/1070289X.2019.1635767.
Townsend, Mark. (2025). “Europe overhauls funding to Tunisia after Guardian exposes migrant abuse.” The Guardian, January 24. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/jan/24/eu-human-rights-tunisia-migrant-security-forces-migration.
Van Kessel, Stijn. (2024). “Populism, the far right and EU integration: beyond simple dichotomies.” Politics & International Relations, 47 (1), 127-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2025.2434341.
Van Moorsel, Jim and Bonfiglio, Ayla. (2024). “A conscious coupling: The EU-Egypt ‘strategc and comprehensive partnership’.” Mixed Migration Centre, April 29. https://mixedmigration.org/eu-egypt-partnership/.
Wajner, Daniel, Destradi, Sandra and Zürn, Michael. (2024). “The effects of global populism: assessing the populist impact on international affairs.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 1819-1833. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae217.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2022a). “Civilizational Populism Around the World.” Populism & Politics, European Center for Populism Studies. https://doi.org/10.55271/pp0012.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2022b). “Civilizational Populism: Definition, Literature, Theory, and Practice.” Religions, 13, 1026. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13111026.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2023). “Civilizational Populism in Domestic and Foreign Policy: The Case of Turkey.” Religions, 14 (5), 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050631
Civilizational Populism and Migration Diplomacy: Tunisia, the European Union, and Italy
Helen L. Murphey
Civilizational populists prioritize territorial sovereignty in their approach to migration. In instances of North-South inequality, however, transit countries may be incentivized to accede to ideologically unpalatable agreements. To understand how these compromises are legitimized, this paper analyses Tunisia’s negotiations with the European Union following the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding in July 2023 that laid the foundations for cooperation over irregular migration. The deal faced challenges on both the Tunisian and EU sides. Tunisian president Kais Saied, a civilizational populist, chafed at perceived EU paternalism and threats to Tunisia’s sovereignty. The deal was also controversial within the EU due to the Saied regime’s human rights violations, which led to further scrutiny of the Tunisian government’s migration management practices. This article finds that Italy’s mediation, spearheaded by Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni, was successful in addressing these tensions. By positioning Italy as separate from EU paternalism through a shared framework informed by civilizational populism, Saied could justify engaging in positive-sum diplomacy with the Meloni government and symbolically dispel perceptions of diplomatic asymmetry.
Keywords: migration, European Union, Tunisia, populist foreign policy, Italy
References
Abderrahim, Tasnim. (2024). “Maghreb migrations: How North Africa and Europe can work together on sub-Saharan migration.” European Council on Foreign Relations, September 5. https://ecfr.eu/publication/maghreb-migrations-how-north-africa-and-europe-can-work-together-on-sub-saharan-migration/.
Adamson, Fiona B. and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2019). “Migration Diplomacy in World Politics.” International Studies Perspectives, 20, 113-128.
Al Jazeera. (2023). “Wuṣifat bil-ʻunṣuriyyah..taṣrīḥāt Saʻīd bi-shaʼn al-muhājirīn min ʼAfrīqiyā janūb aṣ-ṣaḥrāʼ tuthīr al-jadal.” Al Jazeera, February 22. https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2023/2/22/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-77.
Al-Shurūq. (2023a). “Jūrjiyyāh Mīlūnī: ‘alaynā ʼiẓhār al-iḥtirām ma‘ tūnis wa-miṣr.” Al-Shurūq, October 26. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7-%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7-%D8%A5%D8%B8%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1.
Al-Shurūq. (2023b). “Ladá istiqbālihi ‘Ammār.. Sa‘īd yarudd ‘alá ‘arḍ al-ittiḥād al-’ūrubbiyy ḥawla milaff al-hijrah.” Al-Shurūq, October 2, 2023. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84-%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9.
Al-Shurūq. (2024). “Sa‘īd ya‘dū ’ilá i‘timād muqāribah jamā‘iyyah li-mas’alat al-hijrah wa-muḥārabat shabakāt al-mutājarah bil-bashar.” Al-Shurūq, April 17, 2024. https://www.alchourouk.com/article/%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B9%D9%88-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A3%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1.
Albanese, Anthony. (2025). “Right-Wing Populism, Religion, and Civilizational Identity.” Religions, 16 (10), 1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101270.
Ambrosini, Maurizio. (2025). “The populist far right paradox: the identification of the enemy and its exceptions in the immigration policies of the Meloni government in Italy.” Comparative Migration Studies, 13:17, 1-19.
Amnesty International. (2023). “Tunisia: President’s racist speech incites a wave of violence against Black Africans.” Amnesty International, March 10. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/03/tunisia-presidents-racist-speech-incites-a-wave-of-violence-against-black-africans/.
Amnesty International. (2024). “Tunisia: Repressive crackdown on civil society organizations following months of escalating violence against migrants and refugees.” Amnesty International, May 16. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/05/tunisia-repressive-crackdown-on-civil-society-organizations-following-months-of-escalating-violence-against-migrants-and-refugees/.
Bajec, Alessandra. (2023). “Tunisia IMF talks in limbo as economic pressure builds.” The New Arab, April 17. https://www.newarab.com/analysis/tunisia-imf-talks-limbo-economic-pressure-builds.
Balmer, Crispian. (2023). “Fearing illegal migration wave, Italy pushing IMF to approve loan to Tunisia.” The Arab Weekly, March 20. https://thearabweekly.com/fearing-illegal-migration-wave-italy-pushing-imf-approve-loan-tunisia.
Ben Slama, Sana. (2023). “Baʻada rafaḍa al-ra’īs Qays Sa‘īd ‘arḍahā al-’akhīr: hal tastaw‘ib baqiyyat buldān al-ittiḥād al-’ūrubbiyy al-risālah allatī istaw‘abathā ’īṭāliya.” Essahafa, October 6. https://essahafa.tn/2023/10/06/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF-%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B1/.
Bettiza, Gregorio, Bolton, Derek and Lewis, David. (2023). “Civilizationism and the Ideological Contestation of the Liberal International Order.” International Studies Review, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viad006.
Bilgic, Ali, Gasper, Des and Wilcock, Cathy. (2020). “A necessary complement to human rights: a human security perspective on migration to Europe.” Institute of Social Studies, Working Paper No. 660. https://repub.eur.nl/pub/128107/wp660.pdf.
Borselli, Hoara. (2023). “Tajani: ‘Europe isn't enough; Africa needs the UN’.” (Libero). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, September 16. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/09/tajani-leuropa-non-basta-per-lafrica-serve-lonu-libero/.
Brubaker, Rogers. (2017). “Between nationalism and civilizationism: the European populist moment in comparative perspective.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40 (8), 1191-1226. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1294700.
Capurso, Federico. (2023). “Tajani: «Africa e migranti, ecco il piano»” (La Stampa). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, July 23. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/07/tajani-africa-e-migranti-ecco-il-piano-la-stampa/.
Carbonaro, Giuliua. (2023). “Italian court blocks deportation of migrant to Tunisia, saying it’s not a safe country.” EuroNews, October 6. https://www.euronews.com/2023/10/06/italian-court-blocks-deportation-of-migrant-to-tunisia-saying-its-not-a-safe-country.
Ceccorulli, Michela. (2024). “Ontological insecurity and securitization dynamics: the co-constitution of borders between Italy and the EU after the refugee crisis of 2015.” Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 33 (1), 164-178.https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2024.2363856.
Chryssogelos, Angelos. (2021). “Is there a populist foreign policy?” Chatham House, March 30. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/03/there-populist-foreign-policy/populists-power-europe.
Cordall, Simon Speakman. (2024). “In Tunisia, refugees and migrants are expelled to the desert, left helpless.” Al-Jazeera, September 12. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/12/in-tunisia-refugees-and-migrants-are-expelled-to-the-desert-left-helpless.
Dahmani, Frida. (2024). “Giorgia Meloni revient à Tunis pour reparler d’immigration.” Jeune Afrique, April 12. https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1557555/politique/georgia-meloni-revient-a-tunis-pour-reparler-dimmigration/.
Destradi, Sandra and Plagemann, Johannes. (2019). “Populism and International Relations: (Un)predictability, personalization, and the reinforcement of existing trends in world politics.” Review of International Studies, 45 (5), 711-730. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210519000184.
Destradi, Sandra, Plagemann, Johannes and Taş, Hakkı. (2022). “Populism and the politicisation of foreign policy.” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 24 (3), 475-492. https://doi.org/10.1177/13691481221075944.
Diez, Thomas and von Lucke, Franziskus. (2024). “Not anxious enough: The discursive articulation of ontological security in the European Parliament.” Review of International Studies, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210524000640.
Diwan, Ishac, Alaya, Hachemi and Meddeb, Hamza. (2024). “Tunisia’s Economy in the Eye of the Storm.” Malcolm H. Kerr Carnegie Middle East Center, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/10/tunisias-economy-in-the-eye-of-the-storm?lang=en¢er=middle-east.
Dudlak, Tamas. (2025). “Civilisational Populism: Ideology and Discourse.” In: Routledge Handbook of Populism and Foreign Policy (eds David Cadier, Angelos Chrysogelos and Sandra Destradi). Abingdon: Routledge, 623-
Dumont, Julia. (2024). “Two years of anti-immigrant policy in Giorgia Meloni’s Italy.” InfoMigrants, October 10. https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/60758/two-years-of-antiimmigrant-policy-in-giorgia-melonis-italy.
European Commission. (2023). “Press statement by President von der Leyen with Tunisian President Saied, Dutch Prime Minister Rutte and Italian Prime Minister Meloni.” European Commission, July 15. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/statement_23_3870.
European Commission. (2024). “L'Union européenne poursuit la mise en œuvre du Mémorandum d'entente avec la Tunisie en déboursant 150 millions d'euros de soutien financier.” European Commission, Directorate-General for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Negotiations. https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/news/lunion-europeenne-poursuit-la-mise-en-oeuvre-du-memorandum-dentente-avec-la-tunisie-en-deboursant-2024-03-04_en.
European Council on Refugees and Exiles. (2023). “EU External Partners: Tunisia ‘Rejects’ EU Funding Casting Doubt on Deal as Reports of Abuse Continue to Mount, New Attack by So-called Libyan Coast Guard.” European Council on Refugees and Exiles, October 6. https://ecre.org/eu-external-partners-tunisia-rejects-eu-funding-casting-doubt-on-deal-as-reports-of-abuse-continue-to-mount-new-attack-by-so-called-libyan-coast-guard/.
European Ombudsman. (2023). “Strategic initiative SI/5/2023/MHZ on how the European Commission intends to guarantee respect for human rights in the context of the EU-Tunisia Memorandum of Understanding.” European Ombudsman, September 13. https://www.ombudsman.europa.eu/en/opening-summary/en/175102.
European Parliament. (2023). “EU Memorandum of Understanding with Tunisia: lack of call for release of political prisoners, legal basis, and human rights conditionality.” European Parliament, Parliamentary Question – P-002382/2023. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/P-9-2023-002382_EN.html.
European Parliament. (2024). “Verbatim Report of Proceedings.” European Parliament, October 22.https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/CRE-10-2024-10-22-ITM-023_EN.html.
European Union External Action. (2022). “European Diplomatic Academy: Opening remarks by High Representative Josep Borrell at the inauguration of the pilot programme.” European Union External Action, October 13. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/european-diplomatic-academy-opening-remarks-high-representative-josep-borrell-inauguration-pilot_en.
Farrell, Nicholas. (2023). “How Giorgia Meloni stabilised Italy.” The Spectator, October 29. https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/how-giorgia-meloni-stabilised-italy/.
Fernández-Molina, Irene and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2024). “Understanding migration power in international studies.” International Affairs, 100 (6), 2461-2479.
Freier, Luisa F., Micinski, Nicholas R. and Tsourapas, Gerasimos. (2021). “Refugee commodification: the diffusion of refugee rent-seeking in the Global South.” Third World Quarterly, 42 (11), 2747-2766.
Gasteli, Nassim and Kaval, Allan. (2024). “Giorgia Meloni returns to Tunis to consolidate her migration cooperation project.” Le Monde, April 19. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2024/04/19/giorgia-meloni-returns-to-tunis-to-consolidate-her-migration-cooperation-project_6668888_124.html.
Geddie, Eve. (2023). “In Tunisia, the EU is repeating an old and dangerous mistake.” Politico, September 21. https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-team-europe-tunisia-president-kais-saied-ybia-refugee-migrant-crisis/.
Giurlando, Philip, and Monteleone, Carla. (2024). “Institutional change, sovereigntist contestation and the limits of populism: evidence from southern Europe.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 2047-2067.
Graff, Agnieszka and Korolczuk, Elżbiet. (2022). Anti-Gender Politics in the Populist Moment. London: Routledge.
Griffini, Marianna and Rosina, Matilde. (2025). “An Ideological Divide? Political Parties’ Discourse in Italy’s Migration Cooperation with Libya and Albania.” The International Spectator, 60 (1), 116-135.
Haastrup, Toni, Duggan, Niall and Mah, Luis. (2021). “Navigating ontological (in)security in EU-Africa relations.” Politics and International Relations, 7 (4), 541-557. https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2021.1981144.
Hlaoui, Nourredine. (2023). “Entre la Tunisie et l’Italie, une bonne entente: Un memorandum en chasse un autre.” La Presse, October 26. https://lapresse.tn/2023/10/26/entre-la-tunisie-et-litalie-une-bonne-entente-un-memorandum-en-chasse-un-autre/.
Humble, Kristian. (2023). “Cooperation and Compromise: Populism, Multilateralism, and International Law.” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, January 13. https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2023/01/13/cooperation-and-compromise-populism-multilateralism-and-international-law/.
Indelicato, Maria Elena and Lopes, Maíra Magalhães. (2024). “Understanding populist far-right anti-immigration and anti-gender stances beyond the paradigm of gender as ‘a symbolic glue’: Giorgia Meloni’s modern motherhood, neo-Catholicism, and reproductive racism.” European Journal of Women’s Studies, 31 (1), 6-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505068241230819.
International Crisis Group. (2023). “Tunisia’s Challenge: Avoiding Default and Preserving Peace.” International Crisis Group, December 22. https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/tunisia/234-tunisias-challenge-avoiding-default-and-preserving.
Jelassi, Khalil. (2023). S”ignature d’un mémorandum d’entente sur un partenariat stratégique et global entre la Tunisie et l’Union Européenne: Migration, économie et rapprochement des peuples!” La Presse, July 17. https://lapresse.tn/2023/07/17/signature-dun-memorandum-dentente-sur-un-partenariat-strategique-et-global-entre-la-tunisie-et-lunion-europeenne-migration-economie-et-rapprochement-des-peuples//
Kington, Tom. (2022). “Giorgia Meloni is first west European leader to believe Great Replacement Conspiracy Theory.” The Times, https://www.thetimes.com/world/europe/article/giorgia-meloni-is-first-west-european-leader-to-believe-great-replacement-conspiracy-theory-pddmf5vsf.
Kinnvall, Catarina. (2019). “Populism, ontological insecurity and Hindutva: Modi and the masculinization of Indian politics.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 32 (3), 283-302. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2019.1588851.
Lavenex, Sandra. (2001). “Migration and the EU’s new eastern border: between realism and liberalism.” Journal of European Public Policy, 8 (1), 24-42.
La Presse. (2024). “Meloni: Le renforcement du partenariat avec la Tunisie est devenu <<une priorité pour l’Italie et l’Union européenne>>.” La Presse, April 17. https://lapresse.tn/2024/04/17/meloni-le-renforcement-du-partenariat-avec-la-tunisie-est-devenu-une-priorite-pour-litalie-et-lunion-europeenne/.
Le Temps. (2023a). “Partenariat stratégique et global entre la Tunisie et l’UE : Au-delà du mémorandum…” Le Temps, July 17. https://letemps.news/2023/07/17/partenariat-strategique-et-global-entre-la-tunisie-et-lue-au-dela-du-memorandum/.
Le Temps. (2023b). “Migration irrégulière : Taoufik Charfeddine appelle à une mobilisation arabe en faveur de la « position souveraine » de la Tunisie.” Le Temps, March 1. https://letemps.news/2023/03/01/migration-irreguliere-taoufik-charfeddine-appelle-a-une-mobilisation-arabe-en-faveur-de-la-position-souveraine-de-la-tunisie/.
Le Temps. (2023c). “Migration: le PDL manifeste devant le siège de l’ambassade d’Italie à Tunis.” Le Temps, June 15. https://letemps.news/2023/06/15/migration-le-pdl-manifeste-devant-le-siege-de-lambassade-ditalie-a-tunis/.
Lehoczki, Bernadett. (2023). “Populist sovereigntism and international cooperation: the case of Brazil and Hungary.” Contemporary Politics, 30 (2), 177-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2023.2267364.
Löfflmann, Georg. (2024). The Politics of Antagonism: Populist Security Narratives and the Remaking of Political Identity. London: Routledge.
Lynch, Suzanne. (2022). “Sorry, not sorry: EU’s top diplomat stands firm amid racism backlash.” Politico, October 19. https://www.politico.eu/article/josep-borrell-faux-pas-latest-in-long-line-of-ill-judged-comments/.
Mandelc, Damjan. (2025). “Religion, Migration, and the Far-Right: How European Populism Frames Religious Pluralism.” Religions, 16 (9), 1192.
Meddeb, Hamza and Louati, Fakhreddine. (2024). “Tunisia’s Transformation into a Transit Hub: Illegal Migration and Policy Dilemmas.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/03/tunisias-transformation-into-a-transit-hub-illegal-migration-and-policy-dilemmas?lang=en.
Middle East Monitor. (2025). “Tunisia president denies signing deportation deal with EU.” Middle East Monitor, April 7. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20250407-tunisia-president-denies-signing-deportation-deal-with-eu/.
Mitzen, Jennifer. (2006). “Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma.” European Journal of International Relations, 12 (3), 341-370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066106067346.
Mitzen, Jennifer. (2018). “Feeling at Home in Europe: Migration, Ontological Security, and the Political Psychology of EU Bordering.” Political Psychology, 39 (6), 1373-1387. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45095213.
Mondon, Aurelien. (2022). “Populism, public opinion, and the mainstreaming of the far right: The ‘immigration issue’ and the construction of a reactionary people.” Politics, 45 (1), 19-36. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957221104726.
Morieson, Nicholas. (2023). “Understanding Civilizational Populism in Europe and North America: The United States, France, and Poland.” Religions, 14 (2), 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14020154.
Mos, Marijn and Piovezan, Igor Macedo. (2024). “Leadership in international populism: How Viktor Orbán’s Hungary shows the way.” New Perspectives, 32 (4), 329-346. https://doi.org/10.1177/2336825X241282599.
Mudde, Cas. (2004). “The Populist Zeitgeist.” Government & Opposition, 39 (4), 541-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x.
Mzioudet, Houda. (2024). “Black Racial Politics and the Racialist Populist Backlash during Tunisia’s Democratic Transition.” POMEPS, Race Politics and Colonial Legacies: France, Africa and the Middle East. https://pomeps.org/black-racial-politics-and-the-racialist-populist-backlash-during-tunisias-democratic-transition.
Nawaat. (2023). “Against the anti-migrant and anti-Black policies of the EU and Tunisia.” Nawaat, August 15. https://nawaat.org/2023/08/15/against-the-anti-migrant-and-anti-black-policies-of-the-eu-and-tunisia/.
The New Arab. (2023). “Tunisia President Kais Saied rejects IMF ‘foreign diktats,’ casting shadow over bailout.” The New Arab, April 6. https://www.newarab.com/news/tunisia-president-kais-saied-rejects-imf-foreign-diktats.
Norman, Kelsey P. and Micinski, Nicholas R. (2023). “The European Union’s migration management aid: Developing democracies or supporting authoritarianism?” International Migration, 61 (4), 57-71.
Pacciardi, Agnese, Spandler, Kilian and Söderbaum, Fredrik. (2024). “Beyond exit: how populists disengage from international institutions.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 2025-2045. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae185/.
Rathgeb, Philip and Hopkin, Jonathan. (2023). “How the Eurozone shapes populism: a comparative political economy approach.” Journal of European Public Policy, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2023.2269972.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023a). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ ra’īsat al-mufawaḍiyyah al-’urubbiyyah ’Ūrsūlā fūn dīr Layīn wa ra’īsat majlis al-wuzarā’ al-’īṭāliyyah Jūrjiyyāh Mīlūnī wal-wazīr al-’awwal al-hūlandiyy Mārk Rūttih.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, June 11. https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7-%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023b). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ al-sayyid Nabīl ‘Ammār, wazīr al-shu’ūn al-khārijiyyah wal-hijrah wal-tūnisiyyīn bal-khārij.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, October 5.https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%91%D8%AF-%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%84-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%8C-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A4%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC-1.
Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah. (2023c). “Liqā’ ra’īs al-jumhūriyyah Qays Sa‘īd ma‘ al-sayyid Antonio Tajani, nā’ib ra’īsat al-ḥukūmah al-’īṭāliyyah wazīr al-khārijiyyah wal-ta‘āwun al-dawliyy.” Ri’āsat al-Jumhūriyyah al-Tūnisiyyah, October 20. https://www.carthage.tn/ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AF-antonio-tajani%D8%8C-%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9.
Roggero, Caterina. (2024). “The European Union and Saïed’s Tunisia: Shifting from “Shared Values” to Strategic Interests.” Italian Institute for International Political Studies, October 4. https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/the-european-union-and-saieds-tunisia-shifting-from-shared-values-to-strategic-interests-185824.
Sayari, Badreddine. (2023). “Ma‘ al-shurūq.. tūnis tafāwaḍa al-nidd lil-nidd.” Al-Shurūq, July 19. https://www.alchourouk.com/journal/%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%82-%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B6-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%91-%D9%84%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%91.
Scazzieri, Luigi. (2022). “Europe’s Migration Problems are Back.” Centre for European Reform, November 22. https://www.cer.eu/insights/europes-migration-problems-are-back.
Snoussi, Lotfi Arbi. (2024). “Fī al-radd ‘alá <<al-qalaq al-’ūrubbiyy>>.” Essahafa, June 28, https://essahafa.tn/2024/06/28/%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b1%d8%af%d9%91-%d8%b9%d9%84%d9%89-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%82%d9%84%d9%82-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%88%d8%b1%d9%88%d8%a8%d9%8a/.
Soborski, Rafal, Garapich, Michał and Jochymek, Anna. (2025). “Between civilization, race, and nation: Transnational dimensions of far-right activism in post-Brexit Britain.” Politics, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957251380256.
Stewart, Blake. (2020). “The Rise of Far-Right Civilizationism.” Critical Sociology, 46 (7-8), 120-1220. https://doi.org/10.1177/089692051989405.
Strik, Tineke and Rubbesom, Ruben. (2024). “Compliance or Complicity? An Analysis of the EU-Tunisia Deal in the Context of the Externalisation of Migration Control.” Netherlands International Law Review, 71, 199-225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40802-024-00251-x.
Taguieff, Pierre-André. (1997). “Populism and Political Science: From Conceptual Illusions to Real Problems.” Vingtième Siècle. Revue d’Histoire, 56 (4), 4-33. https://doi.org/10.3917/ving.p1997.56n1.0004.
Tajani, Antonio. (2023). “Tajani: ‘Italy is no longer alone on migration. National security actions will not suffice.” (Avvenire). Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale, July 26. https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/interviste/2023/07/tajani-sulle-migrazioni-litalia-non-e-piu-sola-le-azioni-securitarie-nazionali-non-basteranno-avvenire/.
Talbot, Valeria and Fruganti, Lorenzo. (2023). “Italy’s Renewed Activism in the ‘Wider Mediterranean’: A Bet for the Future.” Italian Institute for International Political Studies, October 4. https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/italys-renewed-activism-in-the-wider-mediterranean-a-bet-for-the-future-146369.
The Arab Weekly. (2023). “Italian PM pledges ‘all-round support to Tunisia’ after talks with Kais Saied.” June 7. https://thearabweekly.com/italian-pm-pledges-all-round-support-tunisia-after-talks-kais-saied.
Thorliefsson, Cathrine. (2021). “In pursuit of purity: populist nationalism and the racialization of difference.” Identities, 28 (2), 186-202. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/10.1080/1070289X.2019.1635767.
Townsend, Mark. (2025). “Europe overhauls funding to Tunisia after Guardian exposes migrant abuse.” The Guardian, January 24. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/jan/24/eu-human-rights-tunisia-migrant-security-forces-migration.
Van Kessel, Stijn. (2024). “Populism, the far right and EU integration: beyond simple dichotomies.” Politics & International Relations, 47 (1), 127-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2025.2434341.
Van Moorsel, Jim and Bonfiglio, Ayla. (2024). “A conscious coupling: The EU-Egypt ‘strategc and comprehensive partnership’.” Mixed Migration Centre, April 29. https://mixedmigration.org/eu-egypt-partnership/.
Wajner, Daniel, Destradi, Sandra and Zürn, Michael. (2024). “The effects of global populism: assessing the populist impact on international affairs.” International Affairs, 100 (5), 1819-1833. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae217.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2022a). “Civilizational Populism Around the World.” Populism & Politics, European Center for Populism Studies. https://doi.org/10.55271/pp0012.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2022b). “Civilizational Populism: Definition, Literature, Theory, and Practice.” Religions, 13, 1026. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13111026.
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Morieson, Nicholas. (2023). “Civilizational Populism in Domestic and Foreign Policy: The Case of Turkey.” Religions, 14 (5), 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050631