Do Economic and Identity Cleavages Account for the Differences Between Left and Right Populism? Hungary, Venezuela, and the United States
Tracy Lightcap*
References
Alexa, M. (1997). Computer-assisted Text Analysis Methodology in the Social Sciences. ZUMA-Arbietsbericht, 1997(7). Mannheim: ZUMA. https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-200849 (December 15, 2019).
Alvarado, Irene. (2017). “A Visualization of 14 Years of Hugo Chávez’s Speeches”. https://github.com/irealva/hugo-chavez-speeches-analysis (March 15, 2024).
Andrade, Chittaranjan. (2015). “Understanding Relative Risk, Odds Ratios, and Related Terms.” Perspectives on Politics Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76 (7): 857 - 861.
Aslandis, Paris. (2016a). “Populist Social Movements of the Great Recession.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 21 (3): 301-321.
Aslandis, Paris. (2016b). “Is Populism an Ideology? A Refutation and a New Perspective.” Political Studies, 64 (15): 88-104.
Balet, Benjamin. (2017). “stopwords/_english.txt.”
https://github.com/bbalet/stopwords/blob/master/_english.txt (March 10, 2024).
Bánkuti, Miklós, Gábor Halmai, and Kim Lane Scheppele. (2012). “Disabling the Constitution.” Journal of Democracy,25 (1): 138–146.
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. (2012). Proposal of the Candidate of the Homeland, Commander Hugo Chávez, for the Socialist Bolivarian Government, 2013-2019. Links: International Journal of Socialist Renewal.http://links.org.au/node/3079 (January 3, 2020).
Buzogany, Aron and Mihai Varga. (2018). “Against ’Post-Communism: The Conservative Dawn in Hungary.” In: New Conservatives in Russia and Central Europe, eds. Katherina Bluhn and Mihai Varga. New York: Routledge, 70-91.
Cannon, Barry. (2004). “Venezuela, April 2002: Coup or Popular Rebellion? The Myth of a Unified Venezuela.” Bulletin of Latin American Research 23 (3): 285-302.
Chavez, Hugo. (2010). “Onwards Towards a Communal State!” Venezuelanalysis, February 26. https://venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/5160/.
Choi, Hyangmi, Peter Bull, and Darren Reed. (2016). “Audience Responses and the Content of Political Speeches.” Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 4 (2): 601-622.
Ciccariello-Maher, George. (2012). “The Children of 1989: Resurrecting the Venezuelan Dead.” https://venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/7404 (February 13, 2020).
Coe, Kevin and Micheal Reitzes. (2010). “Obama on the Stump: Features and Determinants of a Rhetorical Approach.” Presidential Studies Quarterly, 40 : 391-413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2010.03777.x
Corrales, Javier. (2020). “Authoritarian Survival: Why Maduro Hasn’t Fallen.” Journal of Democracy, 31 (3):39 - 53. Project MUSE, https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jod.2020.0044.
Eidenmuller, Michael E. (2024). American Rhetoric. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speechbank.htm (March 10, 2024).
Elwanger, Adam and Mike Duncan. (2014). “The Rhetoric of Moderation in Deliberative Discourse: Barack Obama’s December 1, 2009 Speech at West Point.” Cogency, 6 (1):63-90.
Ernst, Nicole; Swen Engesser; Florin Büchel; Sina Blassnig, and Frank Esser. (2017). “Extreme Parties and Populism: An Analysis of Facebook and Twitter Across Six Countries.” Information, Communication, and Society, 20 (9): 1347 -1364.
Fernández-Garcia, Belén and Óscar G. Luengo (2018). “Populist Parties in Western Europe: An Analysis of Three Core Elements of Populism.” Communication and Society, 31 (3): 57–76.
Fidesz (Hungarian Civic Union). (2007). A Stronger Hungary: The Manifesto of Fidesz. http://http://static-old.fidesz.hu/download/_EN/FideszPP2007_EN.pdf (December 12, 2019).
Feinberg, Jonathon. (2014). Wordle. http://www.wordle.net (September 20, 2016).
Gertz, Geoffrey and Homi Kharas. (2019). Beyond Neo-liberalism: Insights from Emerging Markets. Washington, DC: Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/beyond-neoliberalism-final-05.01.pdf
Gott, Richard. (2011). Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution. New York: Verso.
Government of Hungary. (2010) “The Prime Minister’s Speeches.” https://2010-2014.kormany.hu/en/prime-minister-s-office/the-prime-ministers-speeches (March 13, 2024).
Hawkins, K. A. (2009). “Is Chávez Populist? Measuring Populist Discourse in Comparative Perspective.” Comparative Political Studies, 42 (8): 1040-1067.
Hetland, Gabriel. (2025). “Capitalism and Authoritarianism in Maduro’s Venezuela.” New Labor Forum, 34(2): 62-69.
Judis, John. (2016). The Populist Explosion: How the Great Recession Transformed American and European Politics. New York: Columbia Global Reports.
Krekó, Peter and Zsolt Enyedi. (2018). “Explaining Eastern Europe: Orbán’s Laboratory of Illiberalism.” Journal of Democracy, 29 (3): 39-51.
Lendvai, Paul. (2017). Orbán. London: C. Hurst.
Lendvai, Paul. (2012). Hungary: Between Democracy and Authoritarianism. London: C. Hurst.
Laver, Michael; Kenneth Beniot, and John Garry. (2003). “Extracting Policy Positions from Political Texts Using Words as Data.” American Political Science Review, 97 (2): 311-331.
Lillelund, Christian. (2021). “Donald Trump Rally Speeches.” https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/christianlillelund/donald-trumps-rallies (March 14, 2024).
Lowe, Will. (2015). Yoshikoder: Cross-platform Multilingual Content Analysis. Java software version 0.6.5.http://yoshikoder.sourceforge.net (November 14, 2019.
Lowe, Will. 2006. “Yoshikoder: An Open Source Multilingual Content Analysis Tool for Social Scientists.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251551334_Yoshikoder_An_Open_Source_Multilingual_Content_Analysis_Tool_for_Social_Scientists (July 15, 2019).
McCoy, Jennifer L. (1999). “Latin America’s Imperiled Progress: Chávez and the End of ’Partyarchy’ in Venezuela.”Journal of Democracy, 10 (3): 64-77.
Moffitt, Benjamin and Simon Tormey. (2014). “Rethinking Populism: Politics, Mediatisation, and Political Style.” Political Studies, 62: 381-397.
Mudde, Cas and Christóbal R. Kaltwasser. (2013). “Exclusionary vs. Inclusionary Populism: Comparing Contemporary Europe and Latin America.” Government and Opposition, 48: 147-174.
Ostry, Jonathon; Prakash Loungani, and Davide Furceri. (2016). “Neoliberalism: Oversold?” Finance and Development,53 (2).
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2016/06/ostry.htm. (May 8, 2017).
Page, Benjamin, Larry Bartels, and Jason Seawright. (2013). “Democracy and the Policy Preferences of Wealthy Americans.” Perspectives on Politics, 11 (1): 51–73.
Pauwels, Teun. (2011). “Measuring Populism: A Quantitative Text Analysis of Party Literature in Belgium.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 21 (1): 97–334.
Popping, Roel. (2018). “Measuring Populist Discourse Using Semantic Text Analysis: A Comment.” Quality and Quantity, 52: 2163-2172.
Rodrik, Dani. (2018). “Populism and the Economics of Globalization.” Journal of International Business Policy, 1.https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/files/
dani-rodrik/files/populism_and_the_economics_of_globalization.pdf (2 January 2018).
Rodrik, Dani. (2019). “Many Forms of Populism.” Vox CEPR Policy Portal. https://voxeu.org/article/many-forms-populism (January 22, 2020).
Rooduijn, M. (2014). “The Mesmerising Message: The Diffusion of Populism in Public Debates in Western European Media.” Political Studies, 64 (4): 726-744.
Scheppele, Kim Lane. (2020). “The Party’s Over.” In: Constitutional Democracy in Crisis?, eds. Mark Graber, Sanford Levinson, and Mark Tushnet. New York: Oxford, pp. 495-514.
Scholten, Peter W. A. and Mark van Ostaijen. (2015). “Policy Populism? Political Populism and Migrant Integration Policies in Rotterdam and Amsterdam.” Comparative European Politics, 12(6): 1 - 20.
Skocpol, Theda. (2003). Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma.
Smilde, David. (2015). “The End of Chavismo?” Current History, February: 49-55.
Streeck, Wolfgang. (2014). Buying Time: The Delayed Crisis of Democratic Capitalism. London: Verso.
Streeck, Wolfgang. (2017). “Trump and the Trumpists.” Inference, 3 (1). http://inference-review.com/article/trump-and-the-trumpists (April 24, 2017).
United States Government, National Archives. (2024). “Remarks by President Trump”. https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/search/?s=remarks+president+trump (March 20, 2024).
Wheaton Lexomics. (2019). Lexos, v4.0. http://lexos.wheatoncollege.edu/upload (March 15, 2024).
Do Economic and Identity Cleavages Account for the Differences Between Left and Right Populism? Hungary, Venezuela, and the United States
Tracy Lightcap*
References
Alexa, M. (1997). Computer-assisted Text Analysis Methodology in the Social Sciences. ZUMA-Arbietsbericht, 1997(7). Mannheim: ZUMA. https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-200849 (December 15, 2019).
Alvarado, Irene. (2017). “A Visualization of 14 Years of Hugo Chávez’s Speeches”. https://github.com/irealva/hugo-chavez-speeches-analysis (March 15, 2024).
Andrade, Chittaranjan. (2015). “Understanding Relative Risk, Odds Ratios, and Related Terms.” Perspectives on Politics Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76 (7): 857 - 861.
Aslandis, Paris. (2016a). “Populist Social Movements of the Great Recession.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 21 (3): 301-321.
Aslandis, Paris. (2016b). “Is Populism an Ideology? A Refutation and a New Perspective.” Political Studies, 64 (15): 88-104.
Balet, Benjamin. (2017). “stopwords/_english.txt.”
https://github.com/bbalet/stopwords/blob/master/_english.txt (March 10, 2024).
Bánkuti, Miklós, Gábor Halmai, and Kim Lane Scheppele. (2012). “Disabling the Constitution.” Journal of Democracy,25 (1): 138–146.
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. (2012). Proposal of the Candidate of the Homeland, Commander Hugo Chávez, for the Socialist Bolivarian Government, 2013-2019. Links: International Journal of Socialist Renewal.http://links.org.au/node/3079 (January 3, 2020).
Buzogany, Aron and Mihai Varga. (2018). “Against ’Post-Communism: The Conservative Dawn in Hungary.” In: New Conservatives in Russia and Central Europe, eds. Katherina Bluhn and Mihai Varga. New York: Routledge, 70-91.
Cannon, Barry. (2004). “Venezuela, April 2002: Coup or Popular Rebellion? The Myth of a Unified Venezuela.” Bulletin of Latin American Research 23 (3): 285-302.
Chavez, Hugo. (2010). “Onwards Towards a Communal State!” Venezuelanalysis, February 26. https://venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/5160/.
Choi, Hyangmi, Peter Bull, and Darren Reed. (2016). “Audience Responses and the Content of Political Speeches.” Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 4 (2): 601-622.
Ciccariello-Maher, George. (2012). “The Children of 1989: Resurrecting the Venezuelan Dead.” https://venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/7404 (February 13, 2020).
Coe, Kevin and Micheal Reitzes. (2010). “Obama on the Stump: Features and Determinants of a Rhetorical Approach.” Presidential Studies Quarterly, 40 : 391-413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2010.03777.x
Corrales, Javier. (2020). “Authoritarian Survival: Why Maduro Hasn’t Fallen.” Journal of Democracy, 31 (3):39 - 53. Project MUSE, https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jod.2020.0044.
Eidenmuller, Michael E. (2024). American Rhetoric. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speechbank.htm (March 10, 2024).
Elwanger, Adam and Mike Duncan. (2014). “The Rhetoric of Moderation in Deliberative Discourse: Barack Obama’s December 1, 2009 Speech at West Point.” Cogency, 6 (1):63-90.
Ernst, Nicole; Swen Engesser; Florin Büchel; Sina Blassnig, and Frank Esser. (2017). “Extreme Parties and Populism: An Analysis of Facebook and Twitter Across Six Countries.” Information, Communication, and Society, 20 (9): 1347 -1364.
Fernández-Garcia, Belén and Óscar G. Luengo (2018). “Populist Parties in Western Europe: An Analysis of Three Core Elements of Populism.” Communication and Society, 31 (3): 57–76.
Fidesz (Hungarian Civic Union). (2007). A Stronger Hungary: The Manifesto of Fidesz. http://http://static-old.fidesz.hu/download/_EN/FideszPP2007_EN.pdf (December 12, 2019).
Feinberg, Jonathon. (2014). Wordle. http://www.wordle.net (September 20, 2016).
Gertz, Geoffrey and Homi Kharas. (2019). Beyond Neo-liberalism: Insights from Emerging Markets. Washington, DC: Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/beyond-neoliberalism-final-05.01.pdf
Gott, Richard. (2011). Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution. New York: Verso.
Government of Hungary. (2010) “The Prime Minister’s Speeches.” https://2010-2014.kormany.hu/en/prime-minister-s-office/the-prime-ministers-speeches (March 13, 2024).
Hawkins, K. A. (2009). “Is Chávez Populist? Measuring Populist Discourse in Comparative Perspective.” Comparative Political Studies, 42 (8): 1040-1067.
Hetland, Gabriel. (2025). “Capitalism and Authoritarianism in Maduro’s Venezuela.” New Labor Forum, 34(2): 62-69.
Judis, John. (2016). The Populist Explosion: How the Great Recession Transformed American and European Politics. New York: Columbia Global Reports.
Krekó, Peter and Zsolt Enyedi. (2018). “Explaining Eastern Europe: Orbán’s Laboratory of Illiberalism.” Journal of Democracy, 29 (3): 39-51.
Lendvai, Paul. (2017). Orbán. London: C. Hurst.
Lendvai, Paul. (2012). Hungary: Between Democracy and Authoritarianism. London: C. Hurst.
Laver, Michael; Kenneth Beniot, and John Garry. (2003). “Extracting Policy Positions from Political Texts Using Words as Data.” American Political Science Review, 97 (2): 311-331.
Lillelund, Christian. (2021). “Donald Trump Rally Speeches.” https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/christianlillelund/donald-trumps-rallies (March 14, 2024).
Lowe, Will. (2015). Yoshikoder: Cross-platform Multilingual Content Analysis. Java software version 0.6.5.http://yoshikoder.sourceforge.net (November 14, 2019.
Lowe, Will. 2006. “Yoshikoder: An Open Source Multilingual Content Analysis Tool for Social Scientists.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251551334_Yoshikoder_An_Open_Source_Multilingual_Content_Analysis_Tool_for_Social_Scientists (July 15, 2019).
McCoy, Jennifer L. (1999). “Latin America’s Imperiled Progress: Chávez and the End of ’Partyarchy’ in Venezuela.”Journal of Democracy, 10 (3): 64-77.
Moffitt, Benjamin and Simon Tormey. (2014). “Rethinking Populism: Politics, Mediatisation, and Political Style.” Political Studies, 62: 381-397.
Mudde, Cas and Christóbal R. Kaltwasser. (2013). “Exclusionary vs. Inclusionary Populism: Comparing Contemporary Europe and Latin America.” Government and Opposition, 48: 147-174.
Ostry, Jonathon; Prakash Loungani, and Davide Furceri. (2016). “Neoliberalism: Oversold?” Finance and Development,53 (2).
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2016/06/ostry.htm. (May 8, 2017).
Page, Benjamin, Larry Bartels, and Jason Seawright. (2013). “Democracy and the Policy Preferences of Wealthy Americans.” Perspectives on Politics, 11 (1): 51–73.
Pauwels, Teun. (2011). “Measuring Populism: A Quantitative Text Analysis of Party Literature in Belgium.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 21 (1): 97–334.
Popping, Roel. (2018). “Measuring Populist Discourse Using Semantic Text Analysis: A Comment.” Quality and Quantity, 52: 2163-2172.
Rodrik, Dani. (2018). “Populism and the Economics of Globalization.” Journal of International Business Policy, 1.https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/files/
dani-rodrik/files/populism_and_the_economics_of_globalization.pdf (2 January 2018).
Rodrik, Dani. (2019). “Many Forms of Populism.” Vox CEPR Policy Portal. https://voxeu.org/article/many-forms-populism (January 22, 2020).
Rooduijn, M. (2014). “The Mesmerising Message: The Diffusion of Populism in Public Debates in Western European Media.” Political Studies, 64 (4): 726-744.
Scheppele, Kim Lane. (2020). “The Party’s Over.” In: Constitutional Democracy in Crisis?, eds. Mark Graber, Sanford Levinson, and Mark Tushnet. New York: Oxford, pp. 495-514.
Scholten, Peter W. A. and Mark van Ostaijen. (2015). “Policy Populism? Political Populism and Migrant Integration Policies in Rotterdam and Amsterdam.” Comparative European Politics, 12(6): 1 - 20.
Skocpol, Theda. (2003). Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma.
Smilde, David. (2015). “The End of Chavismo?” Current History, February: 49-55.
Streeck, Wolfgang. (2014). Buying Time: The Delayed Crisis of Democratic Capitalism. London: Verso.
Streeck, Wolfgang. (2017). “Trump and the Trumpists.” Inference, 3 (1). http://inference-review.com/article/trump-and-the-trumpists (April 24, 2017).
United States Government, National Archives. (2024). “Remarks by President Trump”. https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/search/?s=remarks+president+trump (March 20, 2024).
Wheaton Lexomics. (2019). Lexos, v4.0. http://lexos.wheatoncollege.edu/upload (March 15, 2024).
