‘Patriots to Defend Our Identity from the Islamisation of Europe’ : How Populist Leaders Normalise Polarisation, a Multimodal Discourse Analysis
Valeria Reggi
This article presents the results of several studies on the communicative strategies of right-wing populist leaders in France, Italy, and the United Kingdom in 2021 and 2024. The analyses focus on Marine Le Pen and Jordan Bardella of the National Rally (Rassemblement National) in France, Giorgia Meloni of Brothers of Italy (Fratelli d'Italia) and Matteo Salvini of the League (Lega) in Italy, and Nigel Farage and Richard Tice of Reform UK. The research explores how these leaders construct ingroup and outgroup identities through discursive strategies, whether the outgroup is defined in civilisational terms and if these narratives have evolved over time, becoming ‘normalised.’ Employing qualitative multimodal analysis, the studies incorporate Plutchik’s (1991) classification of basic emotions, Martin and White’s (2005) appraisal theory, and Kress and van Leeuwen’s (2006) framework for image composition. The findings suggest an instrumental use of religion to enhance polarisation, but with a notable transition from emotionally charged visual campaigns to more rationalised and institutionalised arguments, contributing to the normalisation of divisive discourse on immigration and national identity.
Keywords: civilisationism, multimodal discourse analysis, normalisation, populism, right wing
References
Aslanidis, P. (2016). “Is populism an ideology? A refutation and a new perspective.” Political Studies, 64(IS), pp. 88–104.
Ballacci, G. and Goodman, R. (2023). “Populism as form and content: Toward a holistic approach.” Populism, 6, pp. 1–27.
Betz, H.G. (2004). Exclusionary populism in Western Europe in the 1990s and beyond: A threat to democracy and civil rights? Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) Programme Paper.
Brubaker, R. (2017). “Between nationalism and civilizationism: The European populist moment in comparative perspective.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40(8), pp. 1191–1226.
Caiani, M., & Carvalho, T. (2021). “The use of religion by populist parties: the case of Italy and its broader implications.” Religion, State and Society, 49(3), 211–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637494.2021.1949935
Combei, C.R. and Reggi, V. (2024). Appraisal, sentiment and emotion analysis in political discourse: A multimodal, multi-method approach. London: Routledge.
Evolvi, G. (2023). “‘Europe is Christian, or it is not Europe’: Post-truth politics and religion in Matteo Salvini’s tweets.” In: Conrad, M., Hálfdanarson, G., Michailidou, A., Galpin, C. and Pyrhönen, N. (eds.) Europe in the age of post-truth politics. Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 131–147. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13694-8_7
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London: Routledge.
Gerbaudo, P. (2018). “Social media and populism: An elective affinity?” Media, Culture & Society, 40(5), pp. 745–753.
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Higgins, M. and Smith, A. (2014). “Disaffiliation and belonging: Twitter and its agonistic publics.” Sociologia e Politiche Sociali, 17(2), pp. 77–89.
Jagers, J. and Walgrave, S. (2007). “Populism as political communication style: An empirical study of political parties’ discourse in Belgium.” European Journal of Political Research, 46, pp. 319–345. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2006.00690.x
KhosraviNik, M. (2017). “Right-wing populism in the West: Social media discourse and echo chambers.” Insight Turkey, 19(3), pp. 53–68.
Kress, G. and van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Krzyżanowski, M. (2020). “Discursive shifts and the normalisation of racism: Imaginaries of immigration, moral panics, and the discourse of contemporary right-wing populism.” Social Semiotics, 30(4), pp. 503–532.
Laclau, E. (2007). On populist reason. London and New York: Verso.
Martin, J.R. and White, P.R.R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moffitt, B. (2016). The global rise of populism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Mudde, C. (2004). ‘The populist zeitgeist’, Government and Opposition, 39(4), pp. 541–563.
Norris, P. and Inglehart, R. (2019). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit, and authoritarian populism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ostiguy, P. (2017). “Populism: A socio-cultural approach.” In: Rovira Kaltwasser, C., Taggart, P., Ochoa Espejo, P. and Ostiguy, P. (eds.) The Oxford handbook of populism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 73–97.
Plutchik, R. (1991). The emotions. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Silk, M. (1984). “Notes on the Judeo-Christian tradition in America.” American Quarterly, 36(1), pp. 65–85.
Taggart, P. (2000). Populism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Taggart, P. (2004). “Populism and the political imaginary.” In: Populism and democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 273–288.
Taguieff, P-A. (2002). La nouvelle judéophobie. Paris: Mille et une nuits.
Thompson, J.B. (2020). “Mediated interaction in the digital age.” Theory, Culture & Society, 37(1), pp. 3–28.
Weyland, K. (2001). “Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American politics.” Comparative Politics, 34(1), pp. 1–22.
Yilmaz, I. (2023). “Civilizational populism in nation-states and democracy.” In: Yilmaz, I. (ed.) Civilizational populism in democratic nation-states. Cham: Springer, pp. 1–14. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4262-6_1
‘Patriots to Defend Our Identity from the Islamisation of Europe’ : How Populist Leaders Normalise Polarisation, a Multimodal Discourse Analysis
Valeria Reggi
This article presents the results of several studies on the communicative strategies of right-wing populist leaders in France, Italy, and the United Kingdom in 2021 and 2024. The analyses focus on Marine Le Pen and Jordan Bardella of the National Rally (Rassemblement National) in France, Giorgia Meloni of Brothers of Italy (Fratelli d'Italia) and Matteo Salvini of the League (Lega) in Italy, and Nigel Farage and Richard Tice of Reform UK. The research explores how these leaders construct ingroup and outgroup identities through discursive strategies, whether the outgroup is defined in civilisational terms and if these narratives have evolved over time, becoming ‘normalised.’ Employing qualitative multimodal analysis, the studies incorporate Plutchik’s (1991) classification of basic emotions, Martin and White’s (2005) appraisal theory, and Kress and van Leeuwen’s (2006) framework for image composition. The findings suggest an instrumental use of religion to enhance polarisation, but with a notable transition from emotionally charged visual campaigns to more rationalised and institutionalised arguments, contributing to the normalisation of divisive discourse on immigration and national identity.
Keywords: civilisationism, multimodal discourse analysis, normalisation, populism, right wing
References
Aslanidis, P. (2016). “Is populism an ideology? A refutation and a new perspective.” Political Studies, 64(IS), pp. 88–104.
Ballacci, G. and Goodman, R. (2023). “Populism as form and content: Toward a holistic approach.” Populism, 6, pp. 1–27.
Betz, H.G. (2004). Exclusionary populism in Western Europe in the 1990s and beyond: A threat to democracy and civil rights? Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) Programme Paper.
Brubaker, R. (2017). “Between nationalism and civilizationism: The European populist moment in comparative perspective.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40(8), pp. 1191–1226.
Caiani, M., & Carvalho, T. (2021). “The use of religion by populist parties: the case of Italy and its broader implications.” Religion, State and Society, 49(3), 211–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637494.2021.1949935
Combei, C.R. and Reggi, V. (2024). Appraisal, sentiment and emotion analysis in political discourse: A multimodal, multi-method approach. London: Routledge.
Evolvi, G. (2023). “‘Europe is Christian, or it is not Europe’: Post-truth politics and religion in Matteo Salvini’s tweets.” In: Conrad, M., Hálfdanarson, G., Michailidou, A., Galpin, C. and Pyrhönen, N. (eds.) Europe in the age of post-truth politics. Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 131–147. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13694-8_7
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London: Routledge.
Gerbaudo, P. (2018). “Social media and populism: An elective affinity?” Media, Culture & Society, 40(5), pp. 745–753.
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Higgins, M. and Smith, A. (2014). “Disaffiliation and belonging: Twitter and its agonistic publics.” Sociologia e Politiche Sociali, 17(2), pp. 77–89.
Jagers, J. and Walgrave, S. (2007). “Populism as political communication style: An empirical study of political parties’ discourse in Belgium.” European Journal of Political Research, 46, pp. 319–345. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2006.00690.x
KhosraviNik, M. (2017). “Right-wing populism in the West: Social media discourse and echo chambers.” Insight Turkey, 19(3), pp. 53–68.
Kress, G. and van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Krzyżanowski, M. (2020). “Discursive shifts and the normalisation of racism: Imaginaries of immigration, moral panics, and the discourse of contemporary right-wing populism.” Social Semiotics, 30(4), pp. 503–532.
Laclau, E. (2007). On populist reason. London and New York: Verso.
Martin, J.R. and White, P.R.R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moffitt, B. (2016). The global rise of populism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Mudde, C. (2004). ‘The populist zeitgeist’, Government and Opposition, 39(4), pp. 541–563.
Norris, P. and Inglehart, R. (2019). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit, and authoritarian populism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ostiguy, P. (2017). “Populism: A socio-cultural approach.” In: Rovira Kaltwasser, C., Taggart, P., Ochoa Espejo, P. and Ostiguy, P. (eds.) The Oxford handbook of populism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 73–97.
Plutchik, R. (1991). The emotions. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Silk, M. (1984). “Notes on the Judeo-Christian tradition in America.” American Quarterly, 36(1), pp. 65–85.
Taggart, P. (2000). Populism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Taggart, P. (2004). “Populism and the political imaginary.” In: Populism and democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 273–288.
Taguieff, P-A. (2002). La nouvelle judéophobie. Paris: Mille et une nuits.
Thompson, J.B. (2020). “Mediated interaction in the digital age.” Theory, Culture & Society, 37(1), pp. 3–28.
Weyland, K. (2001). “Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American politics.” Comparative Politics, 34(1), pp. 1–22.
Yilmaz, I. (2023). “Civilizational populism in nation-states and democracy.” In: Yilmaz, I. (ed.) Civilizational populism in democratic nation-states. Cham: Springer, pp. 1–14. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4262-6_1
‘Patriots to Defend Our Identity from the Islamisation of Europe’ : How Populist Leaders Normalise Polarisation, a Multimodal Discourse Analysis
Valeria Reggi
This article presents the results of several studies on the communicative strategies of right-wing populist leaders in France, Italy, and the United Kingdom in 2021 and 2024. The analyses focus on Marine Le Pen and Jordan Bardella of the National Rally (Rassemblement National) in France, Giorgia Meloni of Brothers of Italy (Fratelli d'Italia) and Matteo Salvini of the League (Lega) in Italy, and Nigel Farage and Richard Tice of Reform UK. The research explores how these leaders construct ingroup and outgroup identities through discursive strategies, whether the outgroup is defined in civilisational terms and if these narratives have evolved over time, becoming ‘normalised.’ Employing qualitative multimodal analysis, the studies incorporate Plutchik’s (1991) classification of basic emotions, Martin and White’s (2005) appraisal theory, and Kress and van Leeuwen’s (2006) framework for image composition. The findings suggest an instrumental use of religion to enhance polarisation, but with a notable transition from emotionally charged visual campaigns to more rationalised and institutionalised arguments, contributing to the normalisation of divisive discourse on immigration and national identity.
Keywords: civilisationism, multimodal discourse analysis, normalisation, populism, right wing
References
Aslanidis, P. (2016). “Is populism an ideology? A refutation and a new perspective.” Political Studies, 64(IS), pp. 88–104.
Ballacci, G. and Goodman, R. (2023). “Populism as form and content: Toward a holistic approach.” Populism, 6, pp. 1–27.
Betz, H.G. (2004). Exclusionary populism in Western Europe in the 1990s and beyond: A threat to democracy and civil rights? Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) Programme Paper.
Brubaker, R. (2017). “Between nationalism and civilizationism: The European populist moment in comparative perspective.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40(8), pp. 1191–1226.
Caiani, M., & Carvalho, T. (2021). “The use of religion by populist parties: the case of Italy and its broader implications.” Religion, State and Society, 49(3), 211–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637494.2021.1949935
Combei, C.R. and Reggi, V. (2024). Appraisal, sentiment and emotion analysis in political discourse: A multimodal, multi-method approach. London: Routledge.
Evolvi, G. (2023). “‘Europe is Christian, or it is not Europe’: Post-truth politics and religion in Matteo Salvini’s tweets.” In: Conrad, M., Hálfdanarson, G., Michailidou, A., Galpin, C. and Pyrhönen, N. (eds.) Europe in the age of post-truth politics. Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 131–147. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13694-8_7
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London: Routledge.
Gerbaudo, P. (2018). “Social media and populism: An elective affinity?” Media, Culture & Society, 40(5), pp. 745–753.
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Higgins, M. and Smith, A. (2014). “Disaffiliation and belonging: Twitter and its agonistic publics.” Sociologia e Politiche Sociali, 17(2), pp. 77–89.
Jagers, J. and Walgrave, S. (2007). “Populism as political communication style: An empirical study of political parties’ discourse in Belgium.” European Journal of Political Research, 46, pp. 319–345. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2006.00690.x
KhosraviNik, M. (2017). “Right-wing populism in the West: Social media discourse and echo chambers.” Insight Turkey, 19(3), pp. 53–68.
Kress, G. and van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Krzyżanowski, M. (2020). “Discursive shifts and the normalisation of racism: Imaginaries of immigration, moral panics, and the discourse of contemporary right-wing populism.” Social Semiotics, 30(4), pp. 503–532.
Laclau, E. (2007). On populist reason. London and New York: Verso.
Martin, J.R. and White, P.R.R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moffitt, B. (2016). The global rise of populism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Mudde, C. (2004). ‘The populist zeitgeist’, Government and Opposition, 39(4), pp. 541–563.
Norris, P. and Inglehart, R. (2019). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit, and authoritarian populism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ostiguy, P. (2017). “Populism: A socio-cultural approach.” In: Rovira Kaltwasser, C., Taggart, P., Ochoa Espejo, P. and Ostiguy, P. (eds.) The Oxford handbook of populism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 73–97.
Plutchik, R. (1991). The emotions. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Silk, M. (1984). “Notes on the Judeo-Christian tradition in America.” American Quarterly, 36(1), pp. 65–85.
Taggart, P. (2000). Populism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Taggart, P. (2004). “Populism and the political imaginary.” In: Populism and democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 273–288.
Taguieff, P-A. (2002). La nouvelle judéophobie. Paris: Mille et une nuits.
Thompson, J.B. (2020). “Mediated interaction in the digital age.” Theory, Culture & Society, 37(1), pp. 3–28.
Weyland, K. (2001). “Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American politics.” Comparative Politics, 34(1), pp. 1–22.
Yilmaz, I. (2023). “Civilizational populism in nation-states and democracy.” In: Yilmaz, I. (ed.) Civilizational populism in democratic nation-states. Cham: Springer, pp. 1–14. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4262-6_1