Toward a Three-Dimensional Understanding of Populism: Discourse, Ideology, and Democratic Mediation
Rafael Marchesan Tauil
The aim of this article is to contribute to the theoretical debate surrounding the concept of populism through an interpretation that considers three inseparable dimensions of politics: discourse, ideology, and democracy. Various theoretical efforts have sought to understand and explain populism through one-dimensional frameworks and, although fundamental to advancing the theoretical field, these approaches ultimately limit understanding by consistently privileging one dimension at the expense of others (strategy, political style, logic of action, etc.). It is from this gap that we propose an interpretation of populism capable of bringing together the theoretical formulations of Ernesto Laclau, Cas Mudde, and Pierre Rosanvallon. We advance the hypothesis that populism consists of a form of political articulation based on: (1) the discursive construction of social equivalences; (2) a moral division between the people and the elite; and (3) a plebiscitary simplification of democratic mediations. As a phenomenon of considerable complexity, populism can only be adequately understood by taking into account different dimensions of politics that interact, merge, and overlap with one another. The article is divided into four sections: first, we provide a brief introduction to the challenges involved in the study of populism; second, we present a brief overview of empirical cases in order to demonstrate how these three dimensions combine and complement one another; third, we outline the foundations of the three interpretative dimensions proposed; and finally, in the conclusion, we sketch possible causal relationships among these dimensions and raise questions that may be addressed in future research.
Keywords: Populism, Discourse, Ideology, Democracy, Ernesto Laclau, Cas Mudde, Pierre Rosanvallon, Political Antagonism, Moral Polarization, Democratic Mediation, Popular Sovereignty, Plebiscitary Democracy
References
Abromeit, J. (2017). “A critical review of recent literature on populism,” Politics and Governance, 5(4), pp. 177–186.
Adam, F. and Tomšič, M. (2019). “The future of populism in a comparative European and global context.” Comparative Sociology, 18(5–6), pp. 687–705.
Ahedo Rodríguez, U. (2023). “Populismo, un concepto y una palabra controvertida.” RIPS: Revista de Investigaciones Políticas y Sociológicas, 22(1).
Akkerman, T. (2003). “Populism and democracy: Challenge or pathology?” Acta politica, 38(2), 147-159
Barr, R.R. (2009). “Populists, outsiders and anti-establishment politics.” Party Politics, 15(1).
Batistella, A. (2020). “Reflexões acerca do conceito de populismo: da teoria clássica às contribuições de Ernesto Laclau.” Revista Tempo e Argumento, 12(29), pp. 1–22.
Batistella, A. (2012). “Um conceito em reflexão: o “populismo” e a sua operacionalidade.” Revista Latino-Americana de História, 1(3), pp. 468–484.
Becker, J. (2010). “The rise of right-wing populism in Hungary.” SEER: Journal for Labour and Social Affairs in Eastern Europe, pp. 29–40.
Berman, S. and Snegovaya, M. (2019). “Populism and the decline of social democracy.” Journal of Democracy, 30(3), pp. 5–19.
Betz, H.-G. (2002). “Conditions favouring the success and failure of radical right-wing populist parties in contemporary democracies.” In: Mény, Y. and Surel, Y. (eds.) Democracies and the populist challenge. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Block, E. and Negrine, R. (2017). “The populist communication style: Toward a critical framework.” International Journal of Communication, 11.
Blokker, P. (2005). “Populist nationalism, anti-Europeanism, post-nationalism, and the East-West distinction.” German Law Journal, 6(2), pp. 371–389.
Bonikowski, B. and Gidron, N. (2016). “The populist style in American politics: Presidential campaign discourse, 1952–1996.” Social Forces, 94(4).
Bonikowski, B., & Gidron, N. (2016). Multiple traditions in populism research: Toward a theoretical synthesis. APSA Comparative Politics Newsletter, 26(12), 7–14.
Bossetta, M. and Husted, E. (2017). “Introduction: Populism in the 21st century: Critical reflections on a global phenomenon.” Politik, 20(4).
Brubaker, R. (2017). “Why populism?” Theory and Society, 46(5).
Canovan, M. (2002). “Taking politics to the people: populism as the ideology of democracy.” In: Mény, Y. and Surel, Y. (eds.) Democracies and the populist challenge. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cassimiro, P.H.P. (2021). “Os usos do conceito de populismo no debate contemporâneo e suas implicações sobre a interpretação da democracia.” Rev. Bras. Ciênc. Polít. (35)
Cox, M. (2018). “The rise of populism and the crisis of globalization: Brexit, Trump and beyond.” In: The Post-Cold War World, pp. 239–247.
Cunha, D. and Cassimiro, P.H.P. (2022). “O populismo como modelo de ‘democracia polarizada’: a teoria do populismo de Pierre Rosanvallon à luz do debate contemporâneo.” Sociologias, 24(59).
Curato, N. (2017). “Flirting with Authoritarian Fantasies? Rodrigo Duterte and the New Terms of Philippine Populism.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 47(1), 142–153.
Da Silva, F.C. and Vieira, M.B. (2019). “Populism as a logic of political action.” European Journal of Social Theory, 22(4).
Dai, Y. & Kustov, A. (2022). “When do politicians use populist rhetoric? Populism as a campaign gamble.” Political Communication, 39(3), 383-404.
De Cleen, B. (2019). “The populist political logic and the analysis of the discursive construction of ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’.” In: Zienkowski, J. and Breeze, R. (eds.) Imagining the Peoples of Europe: Populist discourses across the political spectrum. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
De la Torre, C. (2018). “Global populism: Histories, trajectories, problems, and challenges.” In: De la Torre, C. (ed.) Routledge handbook of global populism. London: Routledge, pp. 1–28.
Dean, J. and Maiguashca, B. (2020). “Did somebody say populism? Towards a renewal and reorientation of populism studies.” Journal of Political Ideologies, 25(1), pp. 11–27.
Eatwell, R. and Goodwin, M. (2018). National populism: The revolt against liberal democracy. London: Penguin Books.
Eberhardt, M. L. (2018). “Crisis de la democracia liberal republicana y populismo en Nicaragua.” Revista Debates latinoamericanos, Red Latinoamericana de Cooperación Universitaria – RLCU, p.1-12.
Elmgren, A. (2018). “The double-edged sword: the political appropriation of the concept of populism.” Journal of Political Ideologies, 23(3), 320-341.
Esen, B. & Gumuscu, S. (2023). “How Erdoğan's populism won again.” Journal of Democracy, 34(3), 21-32.
Finchelstein, F. (2019) “Populism without borders: Notes on global history.” Constellations, 26(3), pp. 418–429.
Freeden, M. (1996). Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Freeden, M. (1998). “Is nationalism a distinct ideology?” Political Studies, 46(4), pp. 748–765.
Freeden, M. (2017). “After the Brexit referendum: Revisiting populism as an ideology.” Journal of Political Ideologies, 22.
Gherghina, S.; Mişcoiu, S., & Soare, S. (Eds.) (2013). Contemporary populism: a controversial concept and its diverse forms. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Greven, T. (2016). The rise of right-wing populism in Europe and the United States: A comparative perspective. Washington, DC: Friedrich Ebert Foundation.
Grzymala-Busse, A.; Kuo, D.; Fukuyama, F. and McFaul, M. (2020). Global populisms and their challenges. Stanford: Stanford University (Report).
Hawkins, K. A.; Aguilar, R.; Castanho Silva, B.; Jenne, E. K.; Kocijan, B. and Rovira, Kaltwasser, C. (2019). “Measuring Populist Discourse: The Global Populism Database.” Paper presented at the 2019 EPSA Annual Conference in Belfast, UK, June 20-22.
Hirvonen, O. & Pennanen, J. (2019). “Populism as a pathological form of politics of recognition.” European Journal of Social Theory, 22(1), 27-44.
Howarth, D. and Stavrakakis, Y. (2000). “Introducing discourse theory and political analysis.” In: Howarth, D., Norval, A.J. and Stavrakakis, Y. (eds.) Discourse theory and political analysis. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Jenkins, D. (2025). “Understanding and evaluating populist strategy.” Philosophy & Social Criticism, 51(1), 77–97
Judis, J.B. (2016). “Rethinking populism.” Dissent, 63(4).
Junco, A. V. V. (2023). “El populismo del siglo XXI y el liderazgo hegemónico. Caso de estudio: Bolivia con Evo Morales.” Perspectivas en Inteligencia, 15(24), 275-301.
Kutay, A. (2024). “Populism, structural transformations, and crisis of representation.” The Journal of Diplomatic Research, 6(2), 1–22.
Laclau, E. (2005). On populist reason. London: Verso.
Laclau, E. (1996). Emancipación y diferencia. Buenos Aires: Ariel.
Laclau, E. (1990). New reflections on the revolution of our time. London: Verso.
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Laclau, E. (1985). “Tesis acerca de la forma hegemónica de la política.” In: Labastida Martín del Campo, J. (coord.) Hegemonía y alternativas políticas en América Latina (Seminario de Morelia). México: Siglo XXI. [Orig. pub. 1980].
Laclau, E. (1983a). “The impossibility of society.” Canadian Journal of Political and Social Theory, 7.
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Laclau, E. (1980). “Populist rupture and discourse.” Screen Education, 34.
Laclau, E. (1977). Política e ideología en la teoría marxista: Capitalismo, fascismo, populismo. Madrid: Siglo XXI.
Laclau, E. (1975). “The specificity of the political: Around the Poulantzas-Miliband debate.” Economy and Society, 5(1).
Meijers, M. J.; Huber, R. A. & Zaslove, A. (2025). “The anatomy of populist ideology: How political parties define ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’.” European Journal of Political Research, 64(4), 2161–2176.
Metz, R. (2026). “In the age of populist leaders: insights from ideational, strategic and discursive–performative perspectives.” International Journal of Public Leadership, 22(1), 34-49.
Milner, H.V. (2019). “Globalisation, populism and the decline of the welfare state.” Survival, 61(2), pp. 91–96.
Moffitt, B. (2017). “Populism in Australia and New Zealand.” In: Rovira Kaltwasser, C.; Taggart, P.; Ochoa Espejo, P. and Ostiguy, P. (eds.) The Oxford handbook of populism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 121–139.
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Toward a Three-Dimensional Understanding of Populism: Discourse, Ideology, and Democratic Mediation
Rafael Marchesan Tauil
The aim of this article is to contribute to the theoretical debate surrounding the concept of populism through an interpretation that considers three inseparable dimensions of politics: discourse, ideology, and democracy. Various theoretical efforts have sought to understand and explain populism through one-dimensional frameworks and, although fundamental to advancing the theoretical field, these approaches ultimately limit understanding by consistently privileging one dimension at the expense of others (strategy, political style, logic of action, etc.). It is from this gap that we propose an interpretation of populism capable of bringing together the theoretical formulations of Ernesto Laclau, Cas Mudde, and Pierre Rosanvallon. We advance the hypothesis that populism consists of a form of political articulation based on: (1) the discursive construction of social equivalences; (2) a moral division between the people and the elite; and (3) a plebiscitary simplification of democratic mediations. As a phenomenon of considerable complexity, populism can only be adequately understood by taking into account different dimensions of politics that interact, merge, and overlap with one another. The article is divided into four sections: first, we provide a brief introduction to the challenges involved in the study of populism; second, we present a brief overview of empirical cases in order to demonstrate how these three dimensions combine and complement one another; third, we outline the foundations of the three interpretative dimensions proposed; and finally, in the conclusion, we sketch possible causal relationships among these dimensions and raise questions that may be addressed in future research.
Keywords: Populism, Discourse, Ideology, Democracy, Ernesto Laclau, Cas Mudde, Pierre Rosanvallon, Political Antagonism, Moral Polarization, Democratic Mediation, Popular Sovereignty, Plebiscitary Democracy
References
Abromeit, J. (2017). “A critical review of recent literature on populism,” Politics and Governance, 5(4), pp. 177–186.
Adam, F. and Tomšič, M. (2019). “The future of populism in a comparative European and global context.” Comparative Sociology, 18(5–6), pp. 687–705.
Ahedo Rodríguez, U. (2023). “Populismo, un concepto y una palabra controvertida.” RIPS: Revista de Investigaciones Políticas y Sociológicas, 22(1).
Akkerman, T. (2003). “Populism and democracy: Challenge or pathology?” Acta politica, 38(2), 147-159
Barr, R.R. (2009). “Populists, outsiders and anti-establishment politics.” Party Politics, 15(1).
Batistella, A. (2020). “Reflexões acerca do conceito de populismo: da teoria clássica às contribuições de Ernesto Laclau.” Revista Tempo e Argumento, 12(29), pp. 1–22.
Batistella, A. (2012). “Um conceito em reflexão: o “populismo” e a sua operacionalidade.” Revista Latino-Americana de História, 1(3), pp. 468–484.
Becker, J. (2010). “The rise of right-wing populism in Hungary.” SEER: Journal for Labour and Social Affairs in Eastern Europe, pp. 29–40.
Berman, S. and Snegovaya, M. (2019). “Populism and the decline of social democracy.” Journal of Democracy, 30(3), pp. 5–19.
Betz, H.-G. (2002). “Conditions favouring the success and failure of radical right-wing populist parties in contemporary democracies.” In: Mény, Y. and Surel, Y. (eds.) Democracies and the populist challenge. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Block, E. and Negrine, R. (2017). “The populist communication style: Toward a critical framework.” International Journal of Communication, 11.
Blokker, P. (2005). “Populist nationalism, anti-Europeanism, post-nationalism, and the East-West distinction.” German Law Journal, 6(2), pp. 371–389.
Bonikowski, B. and Gidron, N. (2016). “The populist style in American politics: Presidential campaign discourse, 1952–1996.” Social Forces, 94(4).
Bonikowski, B., & Gidron, N. (2016). Multiple traditions in populism research: Toward a theoretical synthesis. APSA Comparative Politics Newsletter, 26(12), 7–14.
Bossetta, M. and Husted, E. (2017). “Introduction: Populism in the 21st century: Critical reflections on a global phenomenon.” Politik, 20(4).
Brubaker, R. (2017). “Why populism?” Theory and Society, 46(5).
Canovan, M. (2002). “Taking politics to the people: populism as the ideology of democracy.” In: Mény, Y. and Surel, Y. (eds.) Democracies and the populist challenge. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cassimiro, P.H.P. (2021). “Os usos do conceito de populismo no debate contemporâneo e suas implicações sobre a interpretação da democracia.” Rev. Bras. Ciênc. Polít. (35)
Cox, M. (2018). “The rise of populism and the crisis of globalization: Brexit, Trump and beyond.” In: The Post-Cold War World, pp. 239–247.
Cunha, D. and Cassimiro, P.H.P. (2022). “O populismo como modelo de ‘democracia polarizada’: a teoria do populismo de Pierre Rosanvallon à luz do debate contemporâneo.” Sociologias, 24(59).
Curato, N. (2017). “Flirting with Authoritarian Fantasies? Rodrigo Duterte and the New Terms of Philippine Populism.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 47(1), 142–153.
Da Silva, F.C. and Vieira, M.B. (2019). “Populism as a logic of political action.” European Journal of Social Theory, 22(4).
Dai, Y. & Kustov, A. (2022). “When do politicians use populist rhetoric? Populism as a campaign gamble.” Political Communication, 39(3), 383-404.
De Cleen, B. (2019). “The populist political logic and the analysis of the discursive construction of ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’.” In: Zienkowski, J. and Breeze, R. (eds.) Imagining the Peoples of Europe: Populist discourses across the political spectrum. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
De la Torre, C. (2018). “Global populism: Histories, trajectories, problems, and challenges.” In: De la Torre, C. (ed.) Routledge handbook of global populism. London: Routledge, pp. 1–28.
Dean, J. and Maiguashca, B. (2020). “Did somebody say populism? Towards a renewal and reorientation of populism studies.” Journal of Political Ideologies, 25(1), pp. 11–27.
Eatwell, R. and Goodwin, M. (2018). National populism: The revolt against liberal democracy. London: Penguin Books.
Eberhardt, M. L. (2018). “Crisis de la democracia liberal republicana y populismo en Nicaragua.” Revista Debates latinoamericanos, Red Latinoamericana de Cooperación Universitaria – RLCU, p.1-12.
Elmgren, A. (2018). “The double-edged sword: the political appropriation of the concept of populism.” Journal of Political Ideologies, 23(3), 320-341.
Esen, B. & Gumuscu, S. (2023). “How Erdoğan's populism won again.” Journal of Democracy, 34(3), 21-32.
Finchelstein, F. (2019) “Populism without borders: Notes on global history.” Constellations, 26(3), pp. 418–429.
Freeden, M. (1996). Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Freeden, M. (1998). “Is nationalism a distinct ideology?” Political Studies, 46(4), pp. 748–765.
Freeden, M. (2017). “After the Brexit referendum: Revisiting populism as an ideology.” Journal of Political Ideologies, 22.
Gherghina, S.; Mişcoiu, S., & Soare, S. (Eds.) (2013). Contemporary populism: a controversial concept and its diverse forms. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Greven, T. (2016). The rise of right-wing populism in Europe and the United States: A comparative perspective. Washington, DC: Friedrich Ebert Foundation.
Grzymala-Busse, A.; Kuo, D.; Fukuyama, F. and McFaul, M. (2020). Global populisms and their challenges. Stanford: Stanford University (Report).
Hawkins, K. A.; Aguilar, R.; Castanho Silva, B.; Jenne, E. K.; Kocijan, B. and Rovira, Kaltwasser, C. (2019). “Measuring Populist Discourse: The Global Populism Database.” Paper presented at the 2019 EPSA Annual Conference in Belfast, UK, June 20-22.
Hirvonen, O. & Pennanen, J. (2019). “Populism as a pathological form of politics of recognition.” European Journal of Social Theory, 22(1), 27-44.
Howarth, D. and Stavrakakis, Y. (2000). “Introducing discourse theory and political analysis.” In: Howarth, D., Norval, A.J. and Stavrakakis, Y. (eds.) Discourse theory and political analysis. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Jenkins, D. (2025). “Understanding and evaluating populist strategy.” Philosophy & Social Criticism, 51(1), 77–97
Judis, J.B. (2016). “Rethinking populism.” Dissent, 63(4).
Junco, A. V. V. (2023). “El populismo del siglo XXI y el liderazgo hegemónico. Caso de estudio: Bolivia con Evo Morales.” Perspectivas en Inteligencia, 15(24), 275-301.
Kutay, A. (2024). “Populism, structural transformations, and crisis of representation.” The Journal of Diplomatic Research, 6(2), 1–22.
Laclau, E. (2005). On populist reason. London: Verso.
Laclau, E. (1996). Emancipación y diferencia. Buenos Aires: Ariel.
Laclau, E. (1990). New reflections on the revolution of our time. London: Verso.
Laclau, E. (1987). Hegemonía y estrategia socialista. Madrid: Siglo XXI. [Orig. pub. 1985].
Laclau, E. (1985). “Tesis acerca de la forma hegemónica de la política.” In: Labastida Martín del Campo, J. (coord.) Hegemonía y alternativas políticas en América Latina (Seminario de Morelia). México: Siglo XXI. [Orig. pub. 1980].
Laclau, E. (1983a). “The impossibility of society.” Canadian Journal of Political and Social Theory, 7.
Laclau, E. (1983b). “‘Socialism,’ ‘the people,’ ‘democracy’: The transformation of hegemonic logic.” Social Text, 3(1).
Laclau, E. (1980). “Populist rupture and discourse.” Screen Education, 34.
Laclau, E. (1977). Política e ideología en la teoría marxista: Capitalismo, fascismo, populismo. Madrid: Siglo XXI.
Laclau, E. (1975). “The specificity of the political: Around the Poulantzas-Miliband debate.” Economy and Society, 5(1).
Meijers, M. J.; Huber, R. A. & Zaslove, A. (2025). “The anatomy of populist ideology: How political parties define ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’.” European Journal of Political Research, 64(4), 2161–2176.
Metz, R. (2026). “In the age of populist leaders: insights from ideational, strategic and discursive–performative perspectives.” International Journal of Public Leadership, 22(1), 34-49.
Milner, H.V. (2019). “Globalisation, populism and the decline of the welfare state.” Survival, 61(2), pp. 91–96.
Moffitt, B. (2017). “Populism in Australia and New Zealand.” In: Rovira Kaltwasser, C.; Taggart, P.; Ochoa Espejo, P. and Ostiguy, P. (eds.) The Oxford handbook of populism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 121–139.
MOFFITT, Benjamin. (2016). The Global Rise of Populism: Performance, Political Style, and Representation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Moffitt, B. and Tormey, S. (2014). “Rethinking populism: Politics, mediatization and political style.” Political Studies, 62(2).
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