Abstract
Full Text
Unveiling China’s ‘Transnational Populism’ and Sharp Power Politics: The Case of the Belt and Road Initiative
Ibrahim Ozturk
In a mutually reinforcing context, the rise of multipolarity and the decline of the rules-based liberal multilateral world order have transformed populism from a national phenomenon into one with global dimensions, characterized by transborder transgressiveness. Rooted in nationalist rhetoric that emphasizes independence and sovereignty, this dynamic challenges the norms and values of multilateralism, fuels a vicious cycle of sharp power politics (SPP), and opens new fronts in the competition for national interests. China's recent political and economic trajectory under President Xi Jinping provides a compelling case for examining the interplay between these factors. Drawing on the evolving theoretical framework of populism and an analysis of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), this article argues that Xi Jinping’s strategic framing of SPPs within an appealing populist narrative does not qualify him as a transnational populist leader. Notably, Chinese rhetoric lacks a cohesive ideology, a clearly defined transnational citizenry with shared interests, and a corresponding mechanism for the participatory representation of global citizens.
Keywords: Populism, sharp-power politics, multipolarity, multilateralism, China, governance, development, (in)dependence, global public goods, cooperation.
References
Brombal, D. (2018). “Sustainability implications of the New Silk Road: Environmental and social planning.” In: C. A. Mendes (Ed.), China's New Silk Road: An emerging world order (pp. 51-66). Routledge.
Brubaker, R. (2017). “Why populism?” Theory and Society, 46 ( 5), 357–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-017-9301-7
Caiani, M. & Graziano, P. (2022). “The three faces of populism in power: Polity, policies, and politics.” Government and Opposition, 57(4), 569-588. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2022.4
Cardenal, J. P., Kucharczyk, J., Mesežnikov, G., & Pleschová, G. (2017). Sharp power: Rising authoritarian influence. International Forum for Democratic Studies, National Endowment for Democracy (U.S.), Network of Democracy Research Institutes.
Carmody, P., & Wainwright, J. (2022). “Contradiction and restructuring in the Belt and Road Initiative: Reflections on China’s pause in the ‘Go World’.” Third World Quarterly, 43(12), 2830–2851. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2022.2110058
Carrai, M. A., Defraigne, J.-C., & Wouters, J. (2020). “The Belt and Road Initiative and global governance: By way of introduction.” In: M. A. Carrai, J.-C. Defraigne, & J. Wouters (Eds.), The Belt and Road Initiative and global governance (pp. 1-19). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Chandran, N. (2019). “Fears of excessive debt drive more countries to cut down their Belt and Road investments.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/amp/2019/01/18/countries-are-reducing-belt-and-road-investments-over-financing-fears.html
China Power Team. (2017, May 8). “How is the Belt and Road Initiative advancing China’s interests?” China Power. Updated November 3, 2023. Accessed June 5, 2024. https://chinapower.csis.org/china-belt-and-road-initiative/
Chu, S. (2022). “Dissociation via Alternative Institutions: The Establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and US-China Conflict.” Historical Social Research, 47(2), 109-137. https://doi.org/10.12759/hsr.47.2022.18
Chtayti, S. (2022). “China’s influence in Germany: Academia and media are the Achilles heel”.https://www.freiheit.org/chinas-influence-germany-academia-and-media-are-achilles-heel
De Cleen, B., Moffitt, B., Panayotu, P., & Stavrakakis, I. (2020). “The Potentials and Difficulties of Transnational Populism: The Case of the Democracy in Europe Movement 2025 (DiEM25).” Political Studies, 68(1), 146-166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719847576
Gorokhovskaia, Y., & Grothe, C. (2024). Freedom in the World 2024: The Mounting Damage of Flawed Elections and Armed Conflict. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2024-02/FIW_2024_DigitalBooklet.pdf
Fulda, A. (2021). “German academic freedom has now been decided in Beijing.” Foreign Policy. October 18, 2021. https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/28/germany-china-censorship-universities-confucius-institute/
Funke, M., Schularick, M., & Trebesch, C. (2023). „Populist leaders and the economy.” American Economic Review, 113 (12), 3249–3288. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20202045
Grimmel, A., & Li, Y. (2018). “The Belt and Road Initiative: A hybrid model of regionalism.” Working Papers on East Asian Studies, No. 122. In-East, University of Duisburg-Essen.
Hillman, J. E. (2020, May 8). “A ‘China model?’ Beijing’s promotion of alternative global norms and standards [Testimony before the U.S. - China Economic and Security Review Commission].” Center for Strategic and International Studies.https://www.csis.org/analysis/china-model-beijings-promotion-alternative-global-norms-and-standards
Himmer, M., & Rod, Z. (2022). “Chinese debt trap diplomacy: Reality or myth?” Journal of the Indian Ocean Region, 18 (3), 250-272. https://doi.org/10.1080/19480881.2023.2195280
Ho, B. T. E. (2021). China’s Political Worldview and Chinese Exceptionalism: International Order and Global Leadership. Amsterdam University Press.
Huang, Y., & Kurlantzick, J. (2020, June 25). “China’s approach to global governance.” The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/chinas-approach-to-global-governance/
Jessop, B. (2013a). “Dynamics of regionalism and globalism: A critical political economy perspective.” Ritsumeikan Social Science Review, 5, 3-24.
Jessop, B. (2013b). Cultural political economy, spatial imaginaries, regional economic dynamics (CPERC Working Paper 2012-02). Lancaster University.
Jones, L., & Hameiri, S. (2020). “Debunking the myth of ‘debt-trap diplomacy’: How recipient countries shape China’s Belt and Road Initiative.” Chatham House, Asia-Pacific Program.
Kim, S. (2023). “Towards an Antiwar Transnational Populism? An Analysis of the Construction of ‘the Russian People’ in Volodymyr Zelensky’s Wartime Speeches.” Government and Opposition, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2023.
Lohse Friedrich, K. (2019). China’s public diplomacy. VIM Group. https://www.communication-director.com/issues/seeing-colour-bringing-emotion-back-corporate-communications/chinas-public-diplomacy/
Mankikar, K. A. (2022, October). “China’s sharp power: Blunting the world’s edge or a moment of global awakening?” (ORF Issue Brief No. 585). Observer Research Foundation.
McDonell, S. (2018, March 12). “Xi forever?” BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-43361276
Millward, J. A. (2023). “Sinicisation, the Tribute System and Dynasties: Three Concepts to Justify Colonialism and Attack non-Sinitic Diversity in the People’s Republic of China.” Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI). http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep52286
Moffitt, B. (2017). “Transnational populism? Representative claims, media, and the difficulty of constructing a transnational ‘people’.” Journal of the European Institute for Communication and Culture, 24, 409–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2017.1330086.
Möller, K. (2021). “Transnational Populism in Context: The UN, the EU, and Beyond.” In: Blokker, P. (Eds.), Imagining Europe. Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81369-7_10
Nedopil Wang, C. (2024). “China Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) Investment Report 2023.” Griffith Asia Institute, Griffith University (Brisbane) and Green Finance & Development Center, FISF Fudan University (Shanghai). https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/5140
Nord, M., Lundstedt, M., Altman, D., Angiolillo, F., Borella, C., Fernandes, T., Gastaldi, L., Good God, A., Natsika, N., & Lindberg, S. I. (2024). Democracy Report 2024: Democracy Winning and Losing at the Ballot. University of Gothenburg: V-Dem Institute.
OECD. (2018). “The Belt and Road Initiative in the global trade, investment and finance landscape.” In: OECD Business and Finance Outlook 2018. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/bus_fin_out-2018-6-en
Ozturk, I. (2020). “On the institutional quality of the Belt and Road Initiative as a hybrid international public good.” ASIEN, (154/155), 129–149.
Pinto, J. F. (2023). “Populist Sharp Power: How the World Entered in a New Cold War.” In: Akande, A. (Eds), Politics Between Nations. Contributions to International Relations. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24896-2_10
Schulhof, V., van Vuuren, D., & Kirchherr, J. (2022). „The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): What Will it Look Like in the Future?” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 175, 121306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121306
The Federal Government. (2023). Strategy on China of the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany.https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/blob/2608580/49d50fecc479304c3da2e2079c55e106/china-strategie-en-data.pdf
United Nations. (2022). “China: UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination calls for probe into Xinjiang rights violations.” [Press release]. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/11/china-un-committee-elimination-racial-discrimination-calls-probe-xinjiang
United Nations Development Program (UNDP) & China Development Bank. (2019, November 6). Harmonizing investment and financing standards. United Nations Development Program. https://www.undp.org/china/publications/harmonizing-investment-and-financing-standards
Walker, C. & Ludwig, J. (2017). From ‘Soft Power’ to ‘Sharp Power’: Rising Authoritarian Influence in the Democratic World. The International Forum for Democratic Studies at the National Endowment for Democracy (NED). https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Sharp-Power-Rising-Authoritarian-Influence-Full-Report.pdf
Walker, C. & Ludwig, J. (2021). A full-spectrum response to sharp power: The vulnerabilities and strengths of open societies. The Sharp Power and Democratic Resilience Series. https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/A-Full-Spectrum-Response-to-Sharp-Power-The-Vulnerabilities-and-Strengths-of-Open-Societies-Walker-Ludwig-June-2021.pdf
Walker, C. (2018). “What Is ‘Sharp Power’?” Journal of Democracy, 29 (3), 9-23.
Wang, X., Chen, S., & Wang, Y. (2023). “The impact of corporate social responsibility on the speed of OFDI under the Belt and Road Initiative.” Sustainability, 15(11), 8712. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118712
Weidenfeld, J. (2022). “Case study: Germany.” In: K. W. Chen et al. (Eds.), China's influence in Europe: Strategies towards a resilient and united EU. Friedrich Naumann Foundation for Freedom. https://shop.freiheit.org/#!/Publikation/1259
Wojczewski, T. (2023). “International and Transnational Populism: Cross-Border Collaboration and Identity Construction.” In: The Inter- and Transnational Politics of Populism. Global Political Sociology. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16848-2_7
Abstract
Full Text
Unveiling China’s ‘Transnational Populism’ and Sharp Power Politics: The Case of the Belt and Road Initiative
Ibrahim Ozturk
In a mutually reinforcing context, the rise of multipolarity and the decline of the rules-based liberal multilateral world order have transformed populism from a national phenomenon into one with global dimensions, characterized by transborder transgressiveness. Rooted in nationalist rhetoric that emphasizes independence and sovereignty, this dynamic challenges the norms and values of multilateralism, fuels a vicious cycle of sharp power politics (SPP), and opens new fronts in the competition for national interests. China's recent political and economic trajectory under President Xi Jinping provides a compelling case for examining the interplay between these factors. Drawing on the evolving theoretical framework of populism and an analysis of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), this article argues that Xi Jinping’s strategic framing of SPPs within an appealing populist narrative does not qualify him as a transnational populist leader. Notably, Chinese rhetoric lacks a cohesive ideology, a clearly defined transnational citizenry with shared interests, and a corresponding mechanism for the participatory representation of global citizens.
Keywords: Populism, sharp-power politics, multipolarity, multilateralism, China, governance, development, (in)dependence, global public goods, cooperation.
References
Brombal, D. (2018). “Sustainability implications of the New Silk Road: Environmental and social planning.” In: C. A. Mendes (Ed.), China's New Silk Road: An emerging world order (pp. 51-66). Routledge.
Brubaker, R. (2017). “Why populism?” Theory and Society, 46 ( 5), 357–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-017-9301-7
Caiani, M. & Graziano, P. (2022). “The three faces of populism in power: Polity, policies, and politics.” Government and Opposition, 57(4), 569-588. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2022.4
Cardenal, J. P., Kucharczyk, J., Mesežnikov, G., & Pleschová, G. (2017). Sharp power: Rising authoritarian influence. International Forum for Democratic Studies, National Endowment for Democracy (U.S.), Network of Democracy Research Institutes.
Carmody, P., & Wainwright, J. (2022). “Contradiction and restructuring in the Belt and Road Initiative: Reflections on China’s pause in the ‘Go World’.” Third World Quarterly, 43(12), 2830–2851. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2022.2110058
Carrai, M. A., Defraigne, J.-C., & Wouters, J. (2020). “The Belt and Road Initiative and global governance: By way of introduction.” In: M. A. Carrai, J.-C. Defraigne, & J. Wouters (Eds.), The Belt and Road Initiative and global governance (pp. 1-19). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Chandran, N. (2019). “Fears of excessive debt drive more countries to cut down their Belt and Road investments.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/amp/2019/01/18/countries-are-reducing-belt-and-road-investments-over-financing-fears.html
China Power Team. (2017, May 8). “How is the Belt and Road Initiative advancing China’s interests?” China Power. Updated November 3, 2023. Accessed June 5, 2024. https://chinapower.csis.org/china-belt-and-road-initiative/
Chu, S. (2022). “Dissociation via Alternative Institutions: The Establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and US-China Conflict.” Historical Social Research, 47(2), 109-137. https://doi.org/10.12759/hsr.47.2022.18
Chtayti, S. (2022). “China’s influence in Germany: Academia and media are the Achilles heel”.https://www.freiheit.org/chinas-influence-germany-academia-and-media-are-achilles-heel
De Cleen, B., Moffitt, B., Panayotu, P., & Stavrakakis, I. (2020). “The Potentials and Difficulties of Transnational Populism: The Case of the Democracy in Europe Movement 2025 (DiEM25).” Political Studies, 68(1), 146-166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719847576
Gorokhovskaia, Y., & Grothe, C. (2024). Freedom in the World 2024: The Mounting Damage of Flawed Elections and Armed Conflict. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2024-02/FIW_2024_DigitalBooklet.pdf
Fulda, A. (2021). “German academic freedom has now been decided in Beijing.” Foreign Policy. October 18, 2021. https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/28/germany-china-censorship-universities-confucius-institute/
Funke, M., Schularick, M., & Trebesch, C. (2023). „Populist leaders and the economy.” American Economic Review, 113 (12), 3249–3288. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20202045
Grimmel, A., & Li, Y. (2018). “The Belt and Road Initiative: A hybrid model of regionalism.” Working Papers on East Asian Studies, No. 122. In-East, University of Duisburg-Essen.
Hillman, J. E. (2020, May 8). “A ‘China model?’ Beijing’s promotion of alternative global norms and standards [Testimony before the U.S. - China Economic and Security Review Commission].” Center for Strategic and International Studies.https://www.csis.org/analysis/china-model-beijings-promotion-alternative-global-norms-and-standards
Himmer, M., & Rod, Z. (2022). “Chinese debt trap diplomacy: Reality or myth?” Journal of the Indian Ocean Region, 18 (3), 250-272. https://doi.org/10.1080/19480881.2023.2195280
Ho, B. T. E. (2021). China’s Political Worldview and Chinese Exceptionalism: International Order and Global Leadership. Amsterdam University Press.
Huang, Y., & Kurlantzick, J. (2020, June 25). “China’s approach to global governance.” The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/chinas-approach-to-global-governance/
Jessop, B. (2013a). “Dynamics of regionalism and globalism: A critical political economy perspective.” Ritsumeikan Social Science Review, 5, 3-24.
Jessop, B. (2013b). Cultural political economy, spatial imaginaries, regional economic dynamics (CPERC Working Paper 2012-02). Lancaster University.
Jones, L., & Hameiri, S. (2020). “Debunking the myth of ‘debt-trap diplomacy’: How recipient countries shape China’s Belt and Road Initiative.” Chatham House, Asia-Pacific Program.
Kim, S. (2023). “Towards an Antiwar Transnational Populism? An Analysis of the Construction of ‘the Russian People’ in Volodymyr Zelensky’s Wartime Speeches.” Government and Opposition, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2023.
Lohse Friedrich, K. (2019). China’s public diplomacy. VIM Group. https://www.communication-director.com/issues/seeing-colour-bringing-emotion-back-corporate-communications/chinas-public-diplomacy/
Mankikar, K. A. (2022, October). “China’s sharp power: Blunting the world’s edge or a moment of global awakening?” (ORF Issue Brief No. 585). Observer Research Foundation.
McDonell, S. (2018, March 12). “Xi forever?” BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-43361276
Millward, J. A. (2023). “Sinicisation, the Tribute System and Dynasties: Three Concepts to Justify Colonialism and Attack non-Sinitic Diversity in the People’s Republic of China.” Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI). http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep52286
Moffitt, B. (2017). “Transnational populism? Representative claims, media, and the difficulty of constructing a transnational ‘people’.” Journal of the European Institute for Communication and Culture, 24, 409–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2017.1330086.
Möller, K. (2021). “Transnational Populism in Context: The UN, the EU, and Beyond.” In: Blokker, P. (Eds.), Imagining Europe. Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81369-7_10
Nedopil Wang, C. (2024). “China Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) Investment Report 2023.” Griffith Asia Institute, Griffith University (Brisbane) and Green Finance & Development Center, FISF Fudan University (Shanghai). https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/5140
Nord, M., Lundstedt, M., Altman, D., Angiolillo, F., Borella, C., Fernandes, T., Gastaldi, L., Good God, A., Natsika, N., & Lindberg, S. I. (2024). Democracy Report 2024: Democracy Winning and Losing at the Ballot. University of Gothenburg: V-Dem Institute.
OECD. (2018). “The Belt and Road Initiative in the global trade, investment and finance landscape.” In: OECD Business and Finance Outlook 2018. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/bus_fin_out-2018-6-en
Ozturk, I. (2020). “On the institutional quality of the Belt and Road Initiative as a hybrid international public good.” ASIEN, (154/155), 129–149.
Pinto, J. F. (2023). “Populist Sharp Power: How the World Entered in a New Cold War.” In: Akande, A. (Eds), Politics Between Nations. Contributions to International Relations. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24896-2_10
Schulhof, V., van Vuuren, D., & Kirchherr, J. (2022). „The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): What Will it Look Like in the Future?” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 175, 121306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121306
The Federal Government. (2023). Strategy on China of the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany.https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/blob/2608580/49d50fecc479304c3da2e2079c55e106/china-strategie-en-data.pdf
United Nations. (2022). “China: UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination calls for probe into Xinjiang rights violations.” [Press release]. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/11/china-un-committee-elimination-racial-discrimination-calls-probe-xinjiang
United Nations Development Program (UNDP) & China Development Bank. (2019, November 6). Harmonizing investment and financing standards. United Nations Development Program. https://www.undp.org/china/publications/harmonizing-investment-and-financing-standards
Walker, C. & Ludwig, J. (2017). From ‘Soft Power’ to ‘Sharp Power’: Rising Authoritarian Influence in the Democratic World. The International Forum for Democratic Studies at the National Endowment for Democracy (NED). https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Sharp-Power-Rising-Authoritarian-Influence-Full-Report.pdf
Walker, C. & Ludwig, J. (2021). A full-spectrum response to sharp power: The vulnerabilities and strengths of open societies. The Sharp Power and Democratic Resilience Series. https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/A-Full-Spectrum-Response-to-Sharp-Power-The-Vulnerabilities-and-Strengths-of-Open-Societies-Walker-Ludwig-June-2021.pdf
Walker, C. (2018). “What Is ‘Sharp Power’?” Journal of Democracy, 29 (3), 9-23.
Wang, X., Chen, S., & Wang, Y. (2023). “The impact of corporate social responsibility on the speed of OFDI under the Belt and Road Initiative.” Sustainability, 15(11), 8712. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118712
Weidenfeld, J. (2022). “Case study: Germany.” In: K. W. Chen et al. (Eds.), China's influence in Europe: Strategies towards a resilient and united EU. Friedrich Naumann Foundation for Freedom. https://shop.freiheit.org/#!/Publikation/1259
Wojczewski, T. (2023). “International and Transnational Populism: Cross-Border Collaboration and Identity Construction.” In: The Inter- and Transnational Politics of Populism. Global Political Sociology. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16848-2_7
Abstract
Full Text
Unveiling China’s ‘Transnational Populism’ and Sharp Power Politics: The Case of the Belt and Road Initiative
Ibrahim Ozturk
In a mutually reinforcing context, the rise of multipolarity and the decline of the rules-based liberal multilateral world order have transformed populism from a national phenomenon into one with global dimensions, characterized by transborder transgressiveness. Rooted in nationalist rhetoric that emphasizes independence and sovereignty, this dynamic challenges the norms and values of multilateralism, fuels a vicious cycle of sharp power politics (SPP), and opens new fronts in the competition for national interests. China's recent political and economic trajectory under President Xi Jinping provides a compelling case for examining the interplay between these factors. Drawing on the evolving theoretical framework of populism and an analysis of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), this article argues that Xi Jinping’s strategic framing of SPPs within an appealing populist narrative does not qualify him as a transnational populist leader. Notably, Chinese rhetoric lacks a cohesive ideology, a clearly defined transnational citizenry with shared interests, and a corresponding mechanism for the participatory representation of global citizens.
Keywords: Populism, sharp-power politics, multipolarity, multilateralism, China, governance, development, (in)dependence, global public goods, cooperation.
References
Brombal, D. (2018). “Sustainability implications of the New Silk Road: Environmental and social planning.” In: C. A. Mendes (Ed.), China's New Silk Road: An emerging world order (pp. 51-66). Routledge.
Brubaker, R. (2017). “Why populism?” Theory and Society, 46 ( 5), 357–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-017-9301-7
Caiani, M. & Graziano, P. (2022). “The three faces of populism in power: Polity, policies, and politics.” Government and Opposition, 57(4), 569-588. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2022.4
Cardenal, J. P., Kucharczyk, J., Mesežnikov, G., & Pleschová, G. (2017). Sharp power: Rising authoritarian influence. International Forum for Democratic Studies, National Endowment for Democracy (U.S.), Network of Democracy Research Institutes.
Carmody, P., & Wainwright, J. (2022). “Contradiction and restructuring in the Belt and Road Initiative: Reflections on China’s pause in the ‘Go World’.” Third World Quarterly, 43(12), 2830–2851. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2022.2110058
Carrai, M. A., Defraigne, J.-C., & Wouters, J. (2020). “The Belt and Road Initiative and global governance: By way of introduction.” In: M. A. Carrai, J.-C. Defraigne, & J. Wouters (Eds.), The Belt and Road Initiative and global governance (pp. 1-19). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Chandran, N. (2019). “Fears of excessive debt drive more countries to cut down their Belt and Road investments.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/amp/2019/01/18/countries-are-reducing-belt-and-road-investments-over-financing-fears.html
China Power Team. (2017, May 8). “How is the Belt and Road Initiative advancing China’s interests?” China Power. Updated November 3, 2023. Accessed June 5, 2024. https://chinapower.csis.org/china-belt-and-road-initiative/
Chu, S. (2022). “Dissociation via Alternative Institutions: The Establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and US-China Conflict.” Historical Social Research, 47(2), 109-137. https://doi.org/10.12759/hsr.47.2022.18
Chtayti, S. (2022). “China’s influence in Germany: Academia and media are the Achilles heel”.https://www.freiheit.org/chinas-influence-germany-academia-and-media-are-achilles-heel
De Cleen, B., Moffitt, B., Panayotu, P., & Stavrakakis, I. (2020). “The Potentials and Difficulties of Transnational Populism: The Case of the Democracy in Europe Movement 2025 (DiEM25).” Political Studies, 68(1), 146-166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719847576
Gorokhovskaia, Y., & Grothe, C. (2024). Freedom in the World 2024: The Mounting Damage of Flawed Elections and Armed Conflict. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2024-02/FIW_2024_DigitalBooklet.pdf
Fulda, A. (2021). “German academic freedom has now been decided in Beijing.” Foreign Policy. October 18, 2021. https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/28/germany-china-censorship-universities-confucius-institute/
Funke, M., Schularick, M., & Trebesch, C. (2023). „Populist leaders and the economy.” American Economic Review, 113 (12), 3249–3288. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20202045
Grimmel, A., & Li, Y. (2018). “The Belt and Road Initiative: A hybrid model of regionalism.” Working Papers on East Asian Studies, No. 122. In-East, University of Duisburg-Essen.
Hillman, J. E. (2020, May 8). “A ‘China model?’ Beijing’s promotion of alternative global norms and standards [Testimony before the U.S. - China Economic and Security Review Commission].” Center for Strategic and International Studies.https://www.csis.org/analysis/china-model-beijings-promotion-alternative-global-norms-and-standards
Himmer, M., & Rod, Z. (2022). “Chinese debt trap diplomacy: Reality or myth?” Journal of the Indian Ocean Region, 18 (3), 250-272. https://doi.org/10.1080/19480881.2023.2195280
Ho, B. T. E. (2021). China’s Political Worldview and Chinese Exceptionalism: International Order and Global Leadership. Amsterdam University Press.
Huang, Y., & Kurlantzick, J. (2020, June 25). “China’s approach to global governance.” The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/chinas-approach-to-global-governance/
Jessop, B. (2013a). “Dynamics of regionalism and globalism: A critical political economy perspective.” Ritsumeikan Social Science Review, 5, 3-24.
Jessop, B. (2013b). Cultural political economy, spatial imaginaries, regional economic dynamics (CPERC Working Paper 2012-02). Lancaster University.
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